LIPPINCOTT'S 
HOME MANUALS 



, 




SUCCESSFUL 

CANNING AND 
PRESERVING 

OLA PO^VELL 



;i 





Class T)( G oi 
Book J43l_ 

CDP^IGHT DEFOSni 



/ 



"Survey our empire and behold our home! " 

— Byron. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME MANUALS 

EDITED BY 

BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OP HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS, TEACHERS COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING 
AND PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR 
SCHOOLS, CLUBS, AND HOME USE 

By OLA POWELL 

U. 8. DEPARTM iNT OF AGRICnLTDRE, ASSISTANT IN HOME 
DEMONSTRATION WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVICE 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

HOME MANUALS 

Edited by BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

CLOTHING FOR WOMEN 

By LAURA I. BALDT, B.S. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 

454 pages, 7 colored plates, 262 illustrations in text, 
$2.00 net. 

SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND 
PRESERVING 

By OLA POWELL 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

405 pages, 5 colored plates, 174 illustrations in text, 
$2.00 net. 
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged 
IN PREPARATION 

HOUSEWIFERY 

By L. ray BALDERSON, B.S. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITT 

MILLINERY 

By EVELYN SMITH TOBEY, B.S. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



LippiNcoTT's Home Manuals 

EDITED BY BENJAMIN R. ANDREWS, Ph.D. 

Teachers College, Columbia University. 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING 
AND PRESERVING 

PRACTICAL HAND BOOK FOR SCHOOLS, 
CLUBS, AND HOME USE 



BY 

>5£?^ OLA (POWELL^ ^'^^A,^ 

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ASSISTANT IN HOME DEMONSTRATION 
WORK IN STATES RELATIONS SERVICE 

Pen and Ink Sketches by 

ROSE E. GAMBLE 

6 COLORED PLATES. 174 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



<^%^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 



■m 23 1918 



Electrolyped and Printed by J . B. Lippincoit Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 



t 



€)CI.A499924 



TO 

YOU WHO ARE STRIVING TO " MAKE 
YOUR BEST better" MY WORK IS 
SYMPATHETICALLY DEDICATED 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

The reception given the first edition of this book by Home 
Demonstration agents, canning club members, housewives and 
instructors in schools, colleges and universities all over the country- 
seems to indicate that the publication is timely and that the 
book meets an urgent need. "While the author desires to express 
her appreciation of the kindly acceptance of the methods and 
principles taught, she also wishes to keep the subject matter abreast 
with modern science and with recent developments in food utiliza- 
tion. To this end certain supplementary material is submitted for 
the second edition. 

The changes consist of the addition of a new chapter on ' ' The 
Canning of Meat and Sea Foods." Some corrections were made, 
a few new illustrations added and the reference lists at the end 
of the chapters are improved by additions of recent publications 
ou food conservation. The remainder of the contents is prac- 
tically identical with that of the first edition. 

The author will be glad to receive, from those using the book, 
suggestions that it is thought would increase its usefulness. 

The Author. 

April, 1918. 



PREFACE 

The canning and preserving of food products is an important 
factor in household management and of even greater importance 
in national economy, since the conservation of foodstuffs, from 
the time of production and natural time of consumption to a 
later time, makes for a more varied and adequate diet, and that 
secured at a lower economic cost. Practical success in canning, 
preserving, drying, and brining turns upon the proper applica- 
tion of the principles of science involved. The great necessity for 
scrupulous care in every step of the whole process is imperative. 
A worker who follows scientific principles and is watchful of 
sanitary conditions will have results that are unifomi and sat- 
isfying. It is easy to talk of science in the abstract as applied 
to such problems, but unless one can show just how this science 
demands that the processes be conducted in order to secure suc- 
cess, such applied "science" is mere pretence. 

Women and girls are now facing a most wonderful oppor- 
tunity for service in aiding to produce and conserve foods not 
only for home consumption, but by increasing the commercial 
products for export to Europe. The responsibility of wisely 
utilizing the yield from greatly increased acreage rests in good 
part upon the women and girls. Their work can be simplified 
and made more effective by wisely applying scientific methods. 

It is imperative not only to produce and conserve supplies of 
food, but also to select the most economical means of keeping the 
various food products. In view of these facts, the suitability of 
canning in comparison with other means of keeping food must 
be considered. Since the public has been convinced of the con- 
venience of handling and serving canned foods, canning has be- 
come the most widely used and popular means of preserving large 
quantities of fruits and vegetables. Some products could be 
stored and sometimes prepared more economically in the home 



viii PREFACE 

if conserved by other means of preservation, such as drying, 
brining and storing. 

Preserving foods by drying is a wery desirable means and 
one which is especially important to practice when there exists a 
shortage of tin cans and when glass containers have advanced 
a great deal in price. 

Vegetables, such as sweet corn, green string beans, peas, and 
fruits such as cherries, berries, peaches, and figs, can be dried, 
and in this state they will furnish variety and serve as a substi- 
tute for canned foods. If properly dried and stored many foods 
are attractive and wholesome. Such vegetables as cauliflower, 
cabbage, cucumbers, and chayotes are better saved in brine than 
canned. Many other vegetables may also be kept in brine. 
Legumes like peas and beans, root crops like carrots and beets, 
while attractive when canned in a succulent stage, are more 
nutritious and more economically stored when mature. 

The use of various foods in the home should be planned in 
advance, so there will be no waste, at the same time having food 
for each meal economically combined and balanced so as to nourish 
each member of the family properly. 

This book has been written to help rather than to shine, and 
if it does help, the author will be content. 

Ola Powell. 
July, 1917. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author wishes to acknowledge her appreciation to those 
who have read and criticized the manuscript ; to Mr. 0. B. Mar- 
tin, Assistant in Charge of Demonstration Club Work, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, for his interest and encouragement 
during the entire preparation of the manuscript; to Miss Mary 
E. Creswell, Assistant in Home Demonstration Work, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, for reading and criticizing the manu- 
script, and for the interpretation of the Home Demonstration 
Work given in Chapter XIX ; to Miss Rhea C. Scott, Specialist 
in Home Demonstration Work in Louisiana, for her sympathy, in- 
terest, and assistance throughout the preparation ; to Mr. Charles 
T. Dearing, Assistant Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, for reading and criticizing the chapter on " Fruit 
Juices "; to Dr. M. N. Straughn, Scientific Assistant, Bureau 
of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for reading and 
correcting the chapter on ''Jelly Making," also for the table for 
using the Brix hydrometer in fruit juices for jelly making; to 
Miss Caroline L. Hunt, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Eco- 
nomics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for Chapter XVII, 
""Uses of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet"; to Frantz P. Lund, 
Specialist, States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture, 
for Chapter XXI, "The Canning of Meats and Sea Foods," 
also fov valuable contributions to chapter on "Drying Fruits, 
Vegetables, and Herbs"; to Mr. H. C. Thompson, Horticulturist, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, for criti- 
cizing Chapter XV and for the information on storing garden 
and orchard products; to Dr. L. A. Round, Scientific Assistant, 
Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, for criticizing 
chapter on "Pickling," and for furnishing the table for making 
brines; to Dr. Albert Mann, Plant Morphologist, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and Dr. Albert Brubaker, Jefferson Medical 



X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

College, Philadelphia, for criticizing the chapter on ''Bac- 
teriology as Applied to Canning " ; to Miss Sarah Wilson, Drexel 
Institute, Philadelphia, for criticizing the manuscript and pre- 
paring the list of questions at the end of each chapter from the 
point of view of a Home Economics teacher; to Mr. F. H. Hall, 
New York Experiment Station, for the recipe "Making Cider 
Vinegar on the Farm"; to the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
for photographs, material quoted, and ideas obtained from the 
following publications : Department Bulletin No. 241, " Studies 
on Fruit Juices"; U. S. Yearbook, 1914, "Apple Syrup and Con- 
centrated Cider," by H. C. Gore; Farmers' Bulletin No. 644, 
"Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice," by G«orge 
C. Husmann; Farmers' Bulletin No. 183, "Meat on the Farm: 
Butchering, Curing and Keeping," by Andrew Boss; for circu- 
lars from the States Relations Seiwice, Extension Work in the 
South, prepared by Miss ]\Iary E. Creswell and ^liss Ola Powell ; 
also to Major Lawrence Foot for the use of Arkansas Extension 
Bulletin, " How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and 
Bacon"; to Mr. G. L. Tiebout, Louisiana State University, for 
results of experiments in cauliflower brining; to Mr. J. A. Red- 
head, Louisiana State University, for recipe on pepper chow- 
chow; to Mrs. Dora D. Walker, Assistant State Agent in Home 
Demonstration Work in South Carolina, for recipe on "Pimiento 
Ketchup " ; to Mrs. Margaret Jonas, Assistant State Agent in 
Home Demonstration Work in Kentucky, for recipe on "Can- 
ning Cucumber Slices." A few of the recipes for use of canned 
goods in this book are adapted from such authors as Miss Anna 
Barrows, Miss Helen M. Spring, and Miss Fannie Farmer ; some 
are from private sources, and others are original. 

The following books especially were consulted during the 
preparation of the material : ' ' Household Bacteriology, ' ' by 
Estelle D. and Robert Earle Buchanan; "Canning and Preserv- 
ing of Food Products with Bacteriological Technique," by E. W. 
Duckwall; "Complete Course in Canning," by C. L. Denning; 
"Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," by A. W. and K. G. 
Bitting; also The Trade, Baltimore, and other magazines were 
consulted. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xj 

Assistance is acknowledged from all of the commercial con- 
cerns which have so generously contributed illustrations and in- 
formation. Thanks are also due and gratefully given to many 
others who have aided by advice, information, and encourage- 
ment. 

To Miss Carrie Harrison, of the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, is due the phrase used as the dedication, "To you who 
are striving to make your best better" — which expresses the 
sentiment to-day animating the tens of thousands of canning club 
girls. South and North and West, as it also expresses the perennial 
spirit of the American housewife. 

Ola Powell. 
July, 1917. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. History of the Development of Scientific Canning 1 

II. Bacteriology as Applied to Canning 15 

III. Preparation and Equipment 30 

IV. Canning in Tin 59 

V. Canning in Glass 71 

VI. Processing — Hot-Water Bath 77 

VII. One Period Processing (Under Steam Pressure) 87 

VIII. Fruit Juices 93 

IX. Fruits for Canning 124 

X. Vegetables for Canning : 133 

XI. Preserves 148 

XII. Marmalades, Jams and Conserves 163 

XIII. Jelly Making 175 

XIV. Pickling 189 

XV. Drying Fruits, Vegetables and Herbs 228 

XVI. Preservation of Meats 250 

XVII. Use of Fruits and Vegetables in the Diet 275 

XVIII. Canning Club Organization 282 

XIX. The Business Side of Canning 300 

XX. Teaching Canning and Related Activities 310 

XXI. Canning Meats and Sea Foods 348 

Appendix 370 

Index 385 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



COLOR PLATES 

PLATE PAGE 

Preserves Frontispiece 

I. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits 12G 

lA. Attractive Packs of Canned Vegetables 134 

II. Attractive Pickle Packs 204 

III. Food Chart 27G 

ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT 
FIG. 

1. Type of Can Used about 1880 3 

2. Manufacturing- Tin Cans To-Day 4 

3. Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Meat Products by States 

in 1899 and 1909 7 

4. A Chart Showing Comparison of Value of Canned and Preserved 

Products by States in 1899 and 1909 8 

5. A Processing Device for Home Canning Proposed in 1889 10 

6. Parasitic Organisms 16 

7. Aspergillus fuinigatus (Appears on Tomato Sauces and Preserves) 18 

8. Bacillus Found on Tomatoes, Showing Flagellse 19 

9. I'enicillium glaucum ( x 500 ) 20 

10. Various Stages of Brewer's Yeast 21 

11. Bacillus butyricus (Rods and Spores Found in Corn) 24 

12. Anaerobic Pea Bacillus 25 

13. Bacillus megatherium (Vegetating Forms as Found in Cans of 

Peas ) 20 

14. (A) Can Burst from Pressure of Gas) Generated, (B) A Normal 

Can, (C) A Swell 27 

15. Testing the Jar Seal 28 

16. A Group of Useful Utensils for Washing, Peeling, Coring, Grating 

and Slicing Fruit and Vegetables 37 

17. Special ICquipment Necessary to Obtain Most Successful and Accu- 

rate Results 37 

18. Utensils Used in Blanching and in Cooking 38 

19. The Processor and Rack with Jars Ready to be Sterilized 39 

20. Tongs for Handling Hot Cans 40 

XV 



xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 

2L Cooperative Canning Minimizes Labor; Canning Club Girls in 

Anson County, N. C, at Work 41 

22. North Carolina County Agents at Peace Institute, Raleigh, N. C. 42 

23. A Homemade Fly-Trap 43 

24. Mississippi Club Girls Building a Fly-Trap for Out-of-Door Can- 

ning 44 

25. A Convenient Arrangement for Out-of-Door Canning 4.5 

26. Canning Out of Doors, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. . . 46 

27. Canning Tomatoes from the Scholarship Plot, State Normal School, 

Harrisonburg, Va 47 

28. A Kerosene Stove which Burns a Gas Flame for Heating Soldering 

Tools 47 

29. A Fire-Pot Burning Corn-Cobs for Heating Tools. A Gasoline 

Fire-Pot or Charcoal Bucket May also be Used 48 

.'!0. A Folding Portable Canner 49 

3L Standard Sizes of Tin Containers 49 

32. Size of Cans Used for Household Purposes 50 

33. Hand INIachine for Sealing Special Sanitary Cans 51 

34. Capping Steel and Tipping Copper 52 

35. A Group of Jars for Household Use 53 

36. Commercial Jars for Special Products '. 54 

37. Appropriate Containers! for Exhibit Purposes 55 

38. Hand Sealing Machine for Glass Jars 56 

39. Stoneware Jars 56 

40. Sorting and Grading Tomatoes 61 

41. Uniform Tomatoes Together 62 

42. Scalding Tomatoes, Using a Square of Cheesecloth 03 

43. Capping 65 

44. Tipping 65 

45. Heating Tools, Capping, and Tipping 66 

46. Students Learning to Can in Tin 67 

47. Labelling > 68 

48. Sterilizing Glass Jars 72 

49. Packing Uniform Pieces of Rhubarb 72 

50. Well-Packed Jar of Peaches 73 

51. Paddles 74 

52. Canning in Glass on Campus of Peabody College for Teachers, 

Nashville, Tenn 75 

53. An Ordinary Bucket Used as a Processor 78 

54. A Wash-Boiler with False Bottom Makes a Convenient Processor. 78 

55. Canner Made of Tubs for Outdoor Use 79 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

56. A Homemade Canncr with Brick Fire-Box and Tub 80 

57. Showing Construction of a Hot-Water Canner 81 

58. A Kerosene Stove Burning a Gas Flame 82 

59. A Folding Two-Burner Gasoline Stove 82 

60. Tank Fitting Inside 82 

61. A Steam Retort for Home Canning 88 

62. A Steam Retort for Home Canning 88 

03. Another Type, Knowni as the Water-Seal Canner 88 

64. Another Steam-Pressure Outfit for Home Canning 89 

65. Pressure Cooker 90 

66. Commercial Retorts where Steam is Piped in from the Boiler ... 91 

67. Household Fruit-Juice Press 94 

68. Cloth Press Being Twisted 95 

69. Construction of a Homemade Fruit Press 96 

70. Fruit Press Ready for Use 97 

71. Fruit Press in Use 97 

72. A Homemade Fruit- Juice Filter 98 

73. Bottling Fruit Juice 99 

74. Making Sealing Wax 101 

75. Screw-Cap Bottle 102 

76. A Hand Bottle Sealing Machine 102 

77. Utensils Used in Making Muscadine Syrup 107 

78. Making Vinegar on the Farm 116 

79. Fig Packs 127 

80. Attractive Packs of Canned Fruits: (a) Berries, (6) Pears, (c) 

Fruit Salad 127 

81. A Balling Hydrometer 128 

82. A Brass Cup which Can! be Used in Place of Glass Cylinder for 

Testing Densiity of Syrup and Brine 129 

83. A Demonstration in Canning, Florida 130 

84. Cleansing Rubber Rings 131 

85. Fancy Packs of Canned Vegetables: (A) Baby Beets, [B) Carrot 

Circles, (C) Log-Cabin Pack of Beans, (D) Concentrated Soup 

Mixture, (E) Okra 136 

86. Roasting and Packing Pimientos 141 

87. Attractive Pepper Packs 142 

88. Tomatoes Packed for Salad 144 

89. Vegetables Packed Fresh for Soup ]\Iixture 146 

90. Packing Watermelon Rind Preserves 149 

91. A Chemical Thermometer — Centigrade 150 

92. Cooling and Plumping Preserved Fruits 151 



xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 

03. Packing Preserved Figs, Walton County, Fla 152 

94. Packing Peanut Butter Commercially IM 

1)5. A Steam-Jacketed Preserving Kettle 161 

96. A Commercial Jelly Strainer Placed on a Chair Back 176 

97. A Commercial Jelly Strainer Placed on a Table 176 

98. Alcohol Test for Pectin in Fruit Juices 177 

99. Testing Fruit Juice for Pectin 177 

100. A Saccharometer Floating in a 250-e.c. Cylinder 178 

101. Jellometer for Testing Fruit Juices in Jelly Making 180 

102. Making Strawberry and Orange Pectin Jelly 182 

103. First Test Shows, Drops of Syrup 183 

104. Finished Test Shows Jelly Flaking or Sheeting from the Paddle. . 183 

105. A Coffee Pot is a Convenient Utensil for Melting and Pouring the 

Paraffin 1 85 

106. A Few Good Glasses of Jelly Ready to Store 186 

107. Students of the State Normal School at Framingham, Mass., Pre- 

paring to Become Community Leaders in the Food Conservation 

Campaign of 1917 186 

108. Brine Hydrometer 192 

109. Brining Equipment 193 

110. Sealing a Crock with a Band of Cheesecloth Dipped into Boiling 

Paraffin 195 

111. A Few Pickle Packs ;• 197 

1 12. Preparation of Vegetables for Mixed Pickles 200 

1 13. A Fancy Pack of Mixed Pickles 202 

1 14. Packing Pickles with Paddles 203 

115. Making Dixie Relish and Stuffing Pepper Mangoes 204 

1 16. Brining Onions 216 

117. Drying Raspberries 232 

118. A Homemade Drier 232 

119. Community Drier Built and Used by Summer School Students at 

State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C 234 

120. (A) Homemade Cook-Stove Drier, (B) Sectional View, Showing 

the Passage of the Heated Air 236 

121. Sliced Apples on a Wooden Tray 239 

122. Drying Figs in California 240 

123. Drying Peaches in California. Trays Stacked for Finishing Off. 240 

124. Cutting a Pork 261 

125. Trimming Hams 261 

126. Picnic Hams Properly Trimmed 261 

127. A Well-Trimmed Ham 262 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

128. A Well-Trimmed Breakfast Bacon 262 

129. Grinding Sausage Meat the Second Time after Seasoning is Added. 267 

130. Roast with Vegetable Macedoine Garnish 278 

131. Fruit Macedoine 279 

132. A Glass of Currant Jelly 279 

133A, Canned Asparagus and Pepper Salad 280 

133B. Log-Cabin Salad Made from Canned Beans 280 

134. State Home Demonstration Agents x\ttending the National Meet- 

ing, Washington, D. C, November, 1917 284 

135. The Home Women, as Described by D. F. Houston, Secretary 

of Agriculture 286 

136. A Comfortable Garden Uniform 287 

137. Another Style of Garden Uniform 288 

138. Garden Uniform 289 

139. A North Carolina Canning Club at Work 304 

140. Properly Labelled Jars • 308 

141. Standard Packs in Tin 308 

142. Canning Club Exhibit, North Carolina State Fair, 1915 313 

143. A Cultivated City Vacant Lot in Philadelphia 322 

144. A Training Farm in Cleveland, Ohio 323 

145. A Cooperative Neighborhood Garden in Philadelphia, Pa 324 

146. A St. Louis Community Canning Kitchen 324 

147. A Tomato Plot in Geauga County, Ohio 325 

148. Harvest Home Exhibit, Willard School, Cleveland, Ohio, 1910 326 

149. Harvest Home Exhibit in Willard School, Cleveland, Ohio, 1911. . 327 

150. A Ten-Year-Old Member with Her Exhibit from a Tiny Plot, 

18 X 22 Feet 328 

151. Senior Class at Harrisonburg Normal School, Va., Cultivating 

and Spraying Their Plants 329 

152. Staking and Tying Plants 329 

153. Prize Winning Short Course Girls Pruning Tomato Plants 330 

154. Senior Class Receiving Instructions in Canning 331 

155. Students' Display of Canning Products from the Scholarship Plot. 331 

156. Tomato Plot Cultivated by Senior Class at Hattiesburg Normal 

School, Mississippi 332 

157. Plan of Building Used for Canning at State Industrial College, 

Denton, Texas 332 

158. One of tlie Training Schools for Voluntary Leaders in the Compre- 

hensive Canning and Drying Campaign Carried on in Nebraska 

in 1917 333 

159. A North Carolina Exhibit of First- Year Products 336 



XX ILLUSTRATIONS 

160. A Parish Exhibit in Louisiana 337 

16L A Miniature Exhibit Suggested as a Plan for a Fair 338 

162. A Carefully Planjied Exhibit 339 

163. Exhibit Made by Students in Home Demonstration Course, Peabody 

College, 1917 340 

164. Judging Canned Tomatoes and Beans 341 

165. This Cow Has Proved to be a Wonderful Prize for this Tennessee 

Girl 342 

166. Gardening Set: Kneeling Pad and Apron for Tools 243 

167. Municipal Kitchen Established in Connection with Municipal 

Market, Salt Lake City, Utah 345 

168. Municipal Market, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1917 345 

169. The Desirable Temperature for Cooling Meat is 34° to 40° Fahren- 

heit 350 

170. A Pork Should Not be Cut up Until it is Thoroughly Cooled 351 

171. Hams Ready to Roast 353 

172. Rabbit Prepared as for Serving! May Be Canned 367 

173. A Pure-bred Belgian Hare 368 

174. Sorting Fish for Canning 369 



SUCCESSFUL 
CANNING AND PRESERVING 



CHAPTER I 

HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC 

CANNING 

Most great industries have existed in some form for a long 
period of time, but the preservation of foodstuffs by canning is 
distinctly a modern art. ]\Ien turned their thoughts at a very 
early time to devising means of preventing foods from spoiling, 
but until the beginning of the nineteenth centuiy the only 
methods employed to this end were drying, pickling, smoking, 
and preserving in sugar. 

French Government First to Discover Method. — The wars 
of Napoleon were directly responsible for the discoveiy of the 
efficacy of the hermetic sealing of foods in order to keep them. 
Near the end of the eighteenth century a prize was offered by 
the French Government for the most practical method of pre- 
serving foods for sea service and militaiy stores. M. Nicholas 
Appert, of Paris, was stimulated by this offer of a reward and 
began experimenting. He worked from 1795 until 1809, when 
he submitted to his government a treatise on the means of pre- 
serving foods. During this year he was awarded the prize of 
twelve thousand francs. In 1810 he published the results of liis 
experiments. 

Appert's Method. — His method was to enclose fruit, after 
heating it, in a glass bottle, which was then corked and sub- 
jected to action of boiling water. The bottle was placed in a 
water-bath and was heated very gradually for varying lengths of 
time, depending upon the character of the food. Appert did not 
know why foods kept when treated according to his method. He 
believed that air was the destructive agent and that its exclusion 



2 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

alone would presei've food which had been cooked. In his 
treatise he wrote: "Absolute privation of the contact of external 
air is necessary after the internal air is rendered of no effect by- 
proper application of heat by means of a w^ater-bath. " 

Past Experiences a Background for Work. — Appert's wide 
experience in life excellently equipped him to solve the problem to 
which he had applied himself so devotedly. He had for nearly 
fifty years been dealing with various lines of food presei"vation, 
working as a pickler, a jjreserver, an expert confectioner, a 
brewer, a distiller, and a chef. lie continued his efforts, using 
many different products, and so perfected the art of canning in 
glass that it is difficult to surpass it even in these times with all 
our modern appliances. His simple utensils and process-room 
might provoke a smile to-day, for science had in his day not 
really determined why canned food kept ; though his explanation 
has proved to be wrong, his methods, oddly enough, worked. 

Investigations Made by Guy Lussac. — Conclusions drawn 
by Guy Lussac, an eminent French chemist, who was employed 
by his government to investigate this matter, coincided with 
what appeared to be the controlling factor in the practice of can- 
ning. He reported that spoiling of food was due to a series of 
oxidation changes, and that by excluding the air these changes 
could be prevented and the food saved. This theory was ac- 
cepted, and the true explanation of the matter was not known 
until the advent of the new science of bacteriology. Since the 
principle of Appert's methods has been shown by time and ex- 
perience to be correct, it is that on which all canning and pre- 
serving have since been done. He is regarded as the father of 
an art which has proved a boon to all mankind. The French 
Government has erected a monument to perpetuate his memory. 
His method was so simple that others began using it very soon, 
and before 1830 it was put into commercial practice. Appert used 
an open water-bath for heating his bottles, and this method is 
one in common use to-day in home canneries. This information 
on canning was desired primarily for military and naval stores, 
but the advantage of having food preserved in this manner at- 
tracted considerable attention to its use in the home. 



HISTORY OF Scientific canning 



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Canning Begun in England. — In 1807 a paper was sub- 
mitted by Mr. Sadding to tbe Enylish Society of Arts, under 
the title "A Method of Preserving Fruits AVithout Sugar for 
House and Sea Stores." It is believed that this knowledge 
of the general principles was obtained from Appert while 
Sadding was travelling in France. 
About the same time Peter Durrand 
obtained a patent in England for 
preserving meat, fruit, and vegetables 
in tin cans. Durrand is sometimes 
spoken of as the father of the tin can. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
TIN CONTAINER 

The canning industry from this 
time on depended a great deal 
on the can ; in fact, it took its 
name "canning" from it. The ap- 
paratus for manufacturing tin cans 
was at first very crude. The bodies 
were cut with shears and the 
side seams made with a plumb 
joint and then soldered together. 
A weight was pulled up to the 
ceiling and allowed to drop upon 
a sheet of tin in order to cut ,. , ^^ . 

ria. 1. — Type of can used 

tops and bottoms of the cans. The ^^out ISSO. (This drawing was 

'' made from one used in "Com- 

die was cast on the under side P'ete Covirse in Canning," by 

C L. Denning.) 

of the weight, and the opposite die was cast in a piece 
of metal below. The forming of these pieces depended on 
the weight being properly giiided, therefore the process was 
slow and difficult. Heads or caps were made to set into 
the body and were soldered in place by hand in a very 
primitive way. Necessity has never more truly proved its 
title, "The Mother of Invention," than in the canning line 
(Fig. 1). These cans were about the size of a No. 2 can, 
except that they were taller. From the crude homemade 










4 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

experimental apparatus there have l)een developed for the 
purpose of the eanner all sorts of machinery and appli- 
ances. Now all parts of the can are made by labor-saving 
machinery and put together by machinery. This method reduces 
their cost enormously (Fig. 2). Commercial houses aban- 
doned glass in favor of tin cans because they would 
withstand extremes of temperature and the initial cost 




Fig. 2. — Manufacturing tin cans to-day. (Heinz Co.) 

was less. The transportation both ways on the tin can 
was less costly and the loss from breakage was eliminated. 
Tin is probably the container used almost universally by 
canners now, although glass is popular in the more exclusive 
canning and preserving kitchens where very choice special 
products are put up into fancy packs. 

The Real Cause of Putrefaction. — During the time of Tyndall 
and Pasteur, 1822 to 1895,- the real cause of putrefaction was 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 5 

detemiiiied to be living microorganisms whicli come in contact 
with the material which "spoils." To these men belongs the 
lionor of discovering the fundamental principles involved. Now- 
adays it is understood that the mere presence or absence of air in 
a can is a matter of no importance in itself. Air plays no im- 
portant part in putrefaction save as a carrier of living things, 
which are commonly and popularly spoken of as germs, microbes, 
microorganisms, or bacteria. All of these terras are used some- 
what indiscriminately and all mean practically the same tiling. 

DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCIAL CANNING IN AMERICA 

The canning industry was established in the United States by 
Ezra Daggett, in 1819. He had learned the trade before emi- 
grating to this country, and packed salmon, lobsters, and oysters 
in New York. The records sliow that William Underwood packed 
preserves and table condiments in glass as early as 1821, in Bos- 
ton, and in 1835 he packed tomatoes in glass. The records also 
show that William Underwood shipped his goods to South 
America in 1821. In 1837 Isaac Winslow began experimenting 
with the canning of com in Portland, Maine. There is probably 
no earlier record of canning in tin in this country than the work 
of Isaac Winslow. Corn was first canned on the cob. This 
proved unsatisfactory on account of the bulk, and it was thought 
the cob absorbed some of the sweetness from the kernels. Maine 
was the home of the corn canning, and is still so considered. The 
first eannerv in Baltimore was opened about 1840. The canning 
of corn, tomatoes, and fruits was started in Cincinnati, Ohio, 
about 1860. The growth of the industry was very rapid. New 
canneries sprang up like mushrooms in various parts of the coun- 
try, and unskilled men vied with the older packers in the quantity 
put out. This rapid growth resulted in the formation of Can- 
iiers' Associations, the development of which led to new and better 
methods of work. 

The question of preservation of food is one of the most inter- 
esting and important in the whole field of applied science. H. L. 
Russell, of the TTniversity of Wisconsin, was the first man in this 
country to apply the science of bacteriology to canning, in 1895, 



6 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

and in 1896, Prof. S. C. Prescott, of the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology, and W. L. Underwood, of Boston, began investiga- 
tions regarding the bacteriological technique of canning. Until 
this time the commercial art of canning was a mixed lot of theory 
hedged about by mystery. 

Theory of Canning Not Understood. — Factories were jeal- 
ously guarded. It was almost impossible for an outsider to gain 
admission. The canner really knew so little about the science 
that he felt compelled to guard carefully his ignorance. He 
tried to throw a glamour of secrecy over nearly every move- 
ment simply through caution to protect what little good informa- 
tion he possessed regarding the process of canning. The uncer- 
tainty and the possibilities that losses might occur w^ere a constant 
source of worry and uneasiness to a great many who were en- 
gaged in the canning business. The general public had a very 
vague knowledge in regard to bacteria. Most people associated 
them only with disease. Canners were loath to have the subject 
of canning connected with germs, because they believed this 
would frighten people, who would then not wish to eat any more 
canned goods. If a season came in which bacteria seemed un- 
usually prevalent, the canners considered it most mysterious and 
attributed it to the ' ' strange season. ' ' Since science has brought 
to us the knowledge of microorganisms the lines of attack have 
become more clearly marked, and with the modern weapons to 
combat the foe we can fight the war against bacteria with safety 
and assurance of success. The principal weapon of defence 
against bacterial action is the practice of most scrupulous cleanli- 
ness ; just as modern surgery depends upon absolute cleanliness. 
Like most other manufacturing industries carried on by enter- 
prising men, the process of canning has undergone complete 
change as the scientific principles involved have come to be under- 
stood and to be given a controlling power over the practical pro- 
cesses involved. 

Location of Industry (Figs. 3 and 4). — Large quantities of 
vegetables, meat, and fish are pre^ei'ved along the Atlantic Coast; 
much of the salmon supply is canned in Oregon and Washington ; 
meats are put up largely in Chicago and Kansas City, and fruits 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 7 

and vegetables of the highest grade are packed in California, 
Hawaii, and New York. Maryland and New Jersey rank very 
high in the production of canned tomatoes. Maine and Illinois 
lead in corn canning. The development in the canning industry 
in the ten-year period is shown in the accompanying charts and 
is largely due to improved machinery. 

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 



fill no IS 

Hansas 

Ne\^ Yoyh 

Nebraska 

Missouri 

iovJa 

Penmi/waniQ 

Ohio 

Indiana 

MassachuscHs 

Texas 

NeuOJersey 

California 

Wisconsin 

Minneso(-a 

Washington 

Maryland f 

Nichiqfan 




Fig. 3. — Chart showing comparison of value of meat products by states in 1S99 and 1909, 
(Thirteenth Census of U.S., Vol. VIII, 1910.) 

A striking illustration of growth in the canning industry is 
the rapid development of the pineapple canning in the Hawaiian 
Islands indicated by the following table: 

1901 2,000 cases 

1908 410.000 cases 

1913 1,667,000 cases 

This volume of business is the combined output of ten sepa- 
rate companies. These results show the quick appreciation of 
a really good product by the consuming public. In the first can- 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



ning large quantities of juice were lost when the prime ripe fruit 
was sliced. Recently it has been discovered that the juice con- 
tains seven per cent of sugar and can be concentrated and used 
for syrup in canning pineapple, thus saving the purchase of large 
quantities of sugar. 

Better Equipment Invented. — When corn canning was first 
begun, the corn was cut from the cob with a common case-knife ; 



MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 




California 

Nenf Vorh 

Man/ 1 and 

Washington 

Pennsylvania 

Indiana 

Maine 

Illinois 

Massachuseils 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Ohio 

Neu} Jerseif 

Oregfon 

lov^a 

Delaviare 

Heniuchij 

Virqinia 

Missouri 

Colorado 

Minnesota 

Utah. 



Fig. 4. — A chart showing comparison of value of canned and preserved products by states 
in 1S99 and 1909. (Thirteenth Census of U. S.. Vol. VIII, 1910.) 

then came the use of a curved form shaped to the ear. At this 
stage of development "cutters" were the most numerous body of 
workmen about the factory. For instance, in 1869, 800 hands 
were employed in a factory : 375 were cutters and about 100 busk- 
ers. Machines run by hand came in about 1875. Power machines 
came into use about 1886. Much improvement has been made on 
all machinery since that date. In canning com, for example, 
among the most important pieces of machinery are those which 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 9 

husk the corn, take off the silk, cut kernels from the eoh, fill the 
cans, seal the cans, put on labels, etc. Different machines are made 
to fit into the work of other machines so the various processes of 
handling one product will be continuous. These machines are now 
perfected in all details and are operated automatically. The 
capacity is immense for carrying products through the different 
departments in a veiy short time. 

Processing Methods (Fig. 5). — In the early days of this in- 
dustry the open-kettle method was used. The highest obtainable 
temperature was 212^ Fahrenheit, the temperature of boiling 
water. It was soon realized that a higher temperature would kill 
more "germs" and insure more successful results in a shorter 
length of time. A little later a higher degree of temperature was 
secured by the addition of common salt to the water-bath. Fol- 
lowing this another method of obtaining a higher degree of heat 
came into favor. It was found that by adding chloride of cal- 
cium to water the specific gravity of water was increased and a 
temperature of 240° Fahrenheit was obtainable without ebulli- 
tion. The advantage claimed for this method was that it was 
fuel-saving and labor-saving. Under this process, however, the 
cans became discolored and considerable expense was incurred in 
cleaning them. "With the coming of the "steam- jacketed" copper 
kettles and the ' ' closed-process ' ' kettle these previously described 
methods of sterilizing were abandoned, except for the plain water- 
bath, which is still in use. The steam- jacketed kettle is one in 
which a kettle is surrounded by a metallic chamber like the com- 
mon double-boiler kettle, except that the outer chamber is air- 
tight and superheated steam is piped into it from a boiler, thus 
raising the temperature of the cooking kettle considerably above 
212°. Such steam-jacketed kettles are commonly used in large- 
quantity cookery, as in hotel kitchens and industries like dyeing 
and soap making, as well as in canning. The closed-process kettle 
is simply a kettle for boiling which can itself be closed tightly so 
as to prevent all escape of steam; the heat which ordinarily 
escapes from the water as the steam arises is thus kept within the 
water and in the superheated body of steam in the closed cham- 
ber above it, and so the temperature rises above 212° With the 



10 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



introduction of steam retorts in 1897 the time for sterilizing was 
shortened. Next came the present style of kettle and diy steam. 
Latest Processor. — The agitating cooker is perhaps the latest 
development. Bulky starch products are jooor conductors of 
heat, and it requires a long time for the heat to penetrate to the 
center of the contents. The time for processing can be greatly 
reduced by causing the cans to roll over and over in such a man- 




FiG. 5. — A processing device for home canning proposed in 1889. 



ner that the liquid present within each can will be carried more 
quickly through the mass and the contents will be gently moved 
to the inside surface of the can, where they become heated more 
rapidly. It is necessary that this agitation be slow and even. 

Other Labor-saving Devices, — There are machines for almost 
every step of the handling of different fruits and vegetables for 
canning; conveyors, sheet-iron tunnels where jets of water are 
constantly running to wash the product, sorters, peelers, slicers, 
fillers, and cappers; these and many other machines are avail- 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING H 

able, and all are labor-saving and space-saving as well. The result 
of this application of machines and power is that a great quantity 
of products can be handled in a very short time. 

Greater Demand for Canned Foods. — In 1890 there were 
about one thousand establishments engaged in this industry and 
the value of the output was a little less than $45,000,000. In 
1916 the output for domestic consumption was thirteen times this 
amount. The consumption of canned products has increased 
yearly, largely because the prices have been reduced as the com- 
mercial process has been perfected, thus coming within reach of 
a larger number of people. It has been said that in 1857 a quart 
of tomatoes sold for 50 cents and a quart of peaches for $1. 
Nathan AVinslow sold to Samuel S. Pierce, of Boston, one dozen 
canisters of preserved corn for $1 in February, 1848. The public 
has been informed through reports and investigations and 
through the advertising world that the conditions under which 
reliable concerns work are sanitary and that canned food prod- 
ucts are as desirable in their place as are fresh foods ; the more 
the public becomes aware of these facts the greater is the demand 
for this class of food. Reduced prices and a buying public 
educated to the real value of canned foods explain the greater 
demand for them. 

Consumption and Estimated Value of Canned Foods in 
1916. — A report which was given at the annual meeting of the 
National Canners' Association in Louisville, Ky., in February, 
1916, will be of interest here to show, to some extent, the use of 
canned food in the United States. Three billion cans of food are 
retailed yearly at about $600,000,000. The consumption of com 
is estimated to be 100,000,000 cans annually ; of peas, 200,000,000, 
and of tomatoes, 350,000,000. New York City spends yearly at 
retail over $64,000,000 for milk, $45,000,000 for bread, $45,000,- 
000 for eggs, and for eanned goods over $150,000,000 — almost as 
much as for milk, bread, and eggs combined. In 1916 the report 
of the Canning Club girls and Home Demonstration Clubs in the 
South showed 3,318,481 containers put up for home use and for 
the market. In the North and West 7903 Canning Club members 
put up 201,306 containers in 1916. This is, of course, only a very 



13 . SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

small percentage of the full amount of such products put up in 
the homes of the country. The economic significance of the use of 
canned foods has grown to such proportions that it cannot be 
ignored by the housewife or by the nation. 

It is important to have vegetables and fruits in the diet, but 
it is impossible to have them fresh at all seasons, especially with 
the difficulty of distribution and transportation of foods in thickly 
populated areas. The problem of extending the supplies from 
season to season must necessarily be met by preservation of foods. 
The composition and their importance in the diet place them 
among staple foods rather than as accessories in the diet. A 
judicious amount of fruits, vegetables, meats, and whole cereals 
mingled with the canned products will doubtless furnish the 
necessary supply of "vitamins," growth-promoting substances, 
which recent investigations indicate are essential to good health. 

United States Government Publication. — The United States 
Government has many persons employed to work out some of the 
problems that perplex the preservers of food. These people have 
been studying for years and experimenting along these lines. Bul- 
letins have been printed on the subject which can be secured 
free, or at a very small cost. Many housekeepers are now ec^g.rlv 
seeking this information. Laws also Imve been passed to attempt 
to regulate the methods of preparation of canned foods. People 
have gradually acquainted themselves with the ways in which 
bacteria work for our good or ill, and it is no longer necessary 
to whisper when discussing their effect on canned goods. It is 
known that useful "germs" greatly outnumber the harmful 
ones. Since we could not exist without the action of bacteria, we 
must regard them as our friends rather than our foes, even though 
there are a few species which might do r :. injury. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What proof can you give that canned goods hold to-day a large place 

in the food supply of our large cities as well as in portions of the 
country remote from the centers of population? 

2. Why is it impossible to collect statistics of the value of the foods 

canned annually in the United States? 



HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC CANNING 13 

3. Why is the study of tlie canning of foods a legitimate work for the 

United States Government? 

4. Wliat large classes in the community may be helped by the knowledge 

of canning disseminated by tlie government? 

5. What forces have made possible the extensive use of canned foods? 

6. What has determined the locations of the canneries? 

7. State chronologically the different processing methods used, giving a 

brief explanation of each. 

8. What is the principle to which each process conforms? 

9. To what science are we indebted for the explanation of the results ob- 

tained in canning? 

10. W^hat is the meaning of putrefaction? What is its cause? 

11. To whom are we indebted for the explanation of putrefaction? To 

whom indebted for the application of scientific explanations to can- 
ning? 

12. To whom are we indebted for the discovery of canning? What his- 

torical events led to this discovery? Give approximate date. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

1916. National Canners' Association, W'ashington, D. C. 30 cents. 

2. Bureau of the Census, Statistics for Canning and Preserving, 1910, 

Thirteenth Census of the United States Manufacturers, 1909. Can 
be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

3. CoRBETT, Florence R., " Fruits and Vegetables," Technical Education 

Bulletin No. 18, February, 1913. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity, New Y^ork City, N. Y. 10 cents. 

4. Deming, Olin Lee, " Science and Experiment as Applied to Canning," 

1902. Sprague Canning Machinery Company, Chicago, 111. 

5. DucKWALL, Edward Wiley, " Canning and Preserving of Food Products 

with Bacteriological Technique," 1905. Pittsburgh Printing Com- 
pany, Pittsburgh, Pa. $5. 

6. Fisher, Irving, and Fisk, E. L., "How to Live," 1915. The Funk & 

Wagnalls Company, New York City, N. Y. $1. 

7. Hunt, A. L., " Canning and Preserving," Twelfth Census of the United 

States Manufacturers, vol. 9, part 3, 1900, pages 461 to 514. Super- 
intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 

8. IMendel, Lafayette Benedict, " Changes in the Food Supply and 

Their Relation to Nutrition," 1916. Yale University Press, New 
Haven, Conn. 50. cents. 

9. Mendel, Lafayette Benedict, " Childhood and Growth," 1906. The 

F. A. Stokes Company, New York City, N. Y. 60 cents. 



14 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

10. Sherman, Henry Clapp, " Food Products," 1914. The Maemillan Com- 

pany, New York City, N. Y. $2.25. 

11. Shriver, J. Alexus, "Pineapple Canning Industry of tlie World," 

Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U. S. Department of 
Labor. 

12. The Pierce Publishing Company, Inc., The National Food Magazine, 

45 West Thirty-fourth Street, New York City, N. 1^ $1.50 a year. 

13. The Trade Company, Baltimore, Md., The Canning Trade (a magazine), 

almanac of the canning industry. $3. 

14. VuLTE, Herman Theodore, and Vanderbilt, Sadie Bird, " Food In- 

dustries," 1916. Chemical Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. $2. 

15. Ward, Artemas, Grocers' Encyclopaedia, IDll. Artemas Ward, 50 

Union Square, New York City, N. Y^. $10. 



CHAPTER II 
BACTERIOLOGY AS APPLIED TO CANNING 

Scientists have established beyond a doubt that the decom- 
position of food is due to the presence of living organisms which 
cause fermentation and putrefaction. These organisms are 
molds, yeasts, and bacteria and belong to the lowest order of 
plants. The presence of all or any of these types of germs on food 
is the principal cause of its spoiling. Similar microorganisms 
exist in teeming millions and are present everywhere. They are 
in the water we drink, in the soil, floating about in the air we 
breathe, and on all objects. All of these except mold are so 
minute as to be invisible without the aid of a microscope. 
Molds, yeasts, and bacteria differ from the plants with which we 
are more familiar in that they are unable to manufacture their 
own food out of the air and the soil as the green plants do. These 
types contain no chlorophyll or green coloring matter, and must 
therefore get their food from substances already built up by 
higher plants or animals. These colorless plants are generally 
grouped by botanists under the division '* fungi," though the 
bacteria are strictly separated from the yeasts and molds. Both 
the chlorophyll-bearing and the colorless plants embrace those 
that are parasites and others that are saprophytes. The para- 
sites live upon live animals and plants; the saprophytes live 
upon dead animals and plants, and it is this class, therefore, 
which concerns us in canning. 

Some people do canning and preserving of foods successfully 
with little knowledge of these germs, but to know something about 
these minute forms of life, which are so abundant everywhere, 
will make the work more interesting. When it is understood 
why foods keep, uniform results may be more easily obtained. 

Molds. — The molds, unlike yeasts and bacteria, are visible to 

15 




Pjq 6. — Parasitic organisms. In the following figures ha denotes aerial hyphse; sp. 
sporangium; zy, zygospore; ex, exosporium; my, mycelium; mc, mucilage; c/, columella; en, 
endogonidia. , 

Fig. A. Spore-bearing hyphae of JVf ucor, growing from horse-dung. tiG. ti. 1 he same, 
teased out with needles (A, 4). Figs. C, D, E. Successive .stages in the development of the 
sporangium. Fia. F. Isolated spores of Mucor-. Fig. G. Germinating spores of the same 
mold. Fig. H. Successive stages in the germination of a single spore. Figs. I, J, K. Suc- 
cessive phases in the conjugative process of Mucor. Fig. L. Successive stages observed 
during ten hours in the growth of a conidiophore ot Fen icilliumm an object-glass culture (U,4). 



Bacteriology of canning liy 

the naked eye. They are considered first because most house- 
keepers and students in home economies are familiar with them in 
their growing stage. Molds require oxygen, considerable moisture 
and heat, and use sugar and starches as food ; moreover, they can 
grow in tlie presence of acids. They thrive in damp, dark places 
where there is little or no circulation of air. Because they have 
the ability to grow in acids molds readily attack fruits and to- 
matoes. At first in general appearance molds are gray, soft, and 
fluffy; later they show colors, as blue, green, brown, black, or 
yellow. The color appears when the molds are reproducing. 
Under a microscope the minute, thread-like mass of mold found 
upon jelly or bread shows a mycelium or root-like structure ex- 
tending into the food upon which it grows. The upward-growing 
branches bear special spore organs which contain thousands of 
seed-like spores. The spores drop from the mold plant and float 
unseen to other places. They grow with great rapidity. The 
kinds reproducing yellow and green spores are sometimes found 
on jellies, preserves, and dry meats. They are first green and 
then yellow. Brown mold is found in putrefaction of fruit. Cer- 
tain types of food materials, particularly the fruits, are most apt 
to be attacked by molds such as Penicillium and Aspergillus (Figs. 
7 and 9 ) . These molds do not develop unless there is oxygen pres- 
ent. These mold spores being abundant in the air, it is impossible 
to leave food exposed without having a number of living spores 
fall upon it. If fruit is opened, partly used, and the jar is simply 
covered again, the fruit will soon mold, due to the mold spores 
which enter while it is open. If this fruit is to be kept it should 
be reheated and sealed to exclude the air. Usually the mold is 
confined to the surface, but the decomposition products of its 
growth frequently penetrate and flavor the whole mass. At one 
time it was believed by some housekeepers that a thick layer of 
mold on the top of crocks and jars containing jams and pre- 
serves was a good indication of its keeping, because this layer of 
mold excluded the air from the contents in the lower part of the 
container. When these jars were opened it was necessary to 
throw away several inches of the food which was next to the mold 
and sometimes nearh^ half of it. As the food stood with this 
2 



18 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



heavy layer of mold the odors and flavor permeated the balance 
of the contents of the jar, and the product when served was not 
so palatable and wholesome as it would have been had it been 
sealed air-tight and processed when first put up (Fig. 8). In 
addition, all waste of food is thus avoided. 

Molds are easily killed by moist heat. A temperature of 160° 
to 180° Fahrenheit will be sufficient to kill all mold. When food 




Fig. 7. — Aspergillus fumujatus (appears on tomato sauces and preserves). 

is sterilized, packed into jars or cans, and sealed immediately to 
protect it, mold will not appear so long as the containers remaiji 
air-tight. If the top of jelly is wiped off with alcohol this will 
kill some of the spores. Sometimes a circular disc of paper wliicli 
has been dipped into alcohol is placed over the jelly before the 
cap is placed on the glass. Often a thin layer of melted paratBn 
is poured over the top of the jelly. Either method will kill any 
mold spores which mighi have fallen on the jelly while it was 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 



19 



open and cooling. Immediately after so treating the jelly it 
should be covered to exclude the air (Figs. 6 and 9). 

Yeast. — The yeast plants are not difficult to control in can- 
ning. Yeasts are the natural agents which produce fermenta- 
tion. As this word is commonly used it refers to the process by 




Fig. 8. — Bacillus found on tomatoes, snowing flagellse, thread-like appendages. 



which alcoholic liquors are produced from sugar solutions. Fer- 
mentation is the basis of producing stimulating beverages. 
Methods of raising yeast bread are also examples of fermentation. 
It is always the sugars present in these substances which undergo 
the fermentation. 

Yeasts are one-celled plants. They reproduce by budding; 
that is, by the growth of a bud on the side of the cell. This bud 



20 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



becomes fully developed very quickly and separates itself from 
the mother-cell, and after attaining the adult stage begins to 
reproduce itself in a similar manner. Yeasts, under adverse coji- 
ditions, sometimes reproduce by forming spores within the cells. 
The cell bursts and the wind carries the spores eveiywhere. The 
use of yeast in bread making is familiar. When given food (in 
form of sugar) , wannth, moisture, and air, yeasts grow, breaking 
up the sugar and producing a gas, called carbon dioxide, and 
alcohol. Bubbles of this gas may be seen when a can of fruit fer- 



fAfHt'f \_ J*-SR 



Fig. 9. — Penicillium glaucum (a common mold)(X 500). (Frenkel and Pfeiffer.) 

nients. Since yeasts are abundant in the air and on the skins 
of fruits and vegetables, it is always necessary both to destroy 
them on the food being canned and to prevent their further en- 
trance into the sterilized foods by sealing the containers air- 
tight. Yeasts are easily killed by moist heat at a temperature of 
160° to 190° Fahrenheit. Occasionally spores, which are more 
resistant than active plants, may be present. The organisms de- 
scribed above are not difficult to control (Fig. 10). 

Bacteria. — Bacteria are the most serious foes to combat in 
canning because they are more difficult xo kill by heat than 
either molds or yeasts. They are present everywhere in enormous 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 



21 



numbers. They are also unicellular plants, but are smaller than 
yeasts. A young bacterium cell attains full size and acquires the 
capacity to reproduce itself much more rapidly than any other 
form of life. So rapid is their reproduction that a single bac- 
terium may produce millions more in a few hours. The rapidly 
multiplying- bacteria often form more or less colorless viscous 
masses or a thin scum float- 
ing on the liquid in which 
they are growing. Similar 
masses form the green scum 
sometimes seen on stagnant 
water, due to the growth of 
a microscopic plant, the 
Spirogyra. 

Bacteria require for 
their growth warmth, 
moisture, and food. Many 
kinds of bacteria prefer 
protein food. Food for 
bacteria is not necessarily 
of a highly complicated 
nature. Many species will 
find the right conditions 
for nourishment a n d 
growth if a small amount 
of protein and some water 
are present. Since few 
bacteria thrive in acids or 
in the presence of much sugar, their destruction is less difficult 
in fruits and tomatoes than in vegetables such as corn, peas, and 
beans, or in meats, which are the most difficult of all foods to 
can safely in the home. 

Bacteria in the growing state can be killed by subjecting them 
to moist heat at boiling temperature for variable lengths of time. 
Moist heat is far more etfective than dry heat. Many kinds of 
bacteria have the power under adverse conditions of producing 
spores which are much more resistant than the vegetative or ac- 




Fia. 10. — Various stages in the development 
of brewer's yeast, seen, with the exeeption of the 
first in the series, with an ordinary high power 
(Zeiss, D. 4) of the microscope. The first is greatly 
magnified (Gundlach's 1-16 immersion lens). The 
second series of four represents stages in the divi- 
sion of asingle cell; and the third series a branching 
colony. Everywhere the light-areas indicate 
vacuoles. 



22 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

tively reproducing form in which the bacteria ordinarily are 
found. Bacteria produce spores for the purpose of meeting un- 
favorable conditions, and in this resting- stage the living matter 
may lie dormant for a long time, as it were, awaiting favorable 
conditions under which the vegetative rapid I'eproduction form 
can be resumed. These spores may be compared to the seeds of 
higher plants in their ability to withstand unfavorable condi- 
tions. "While most of the bacteria which do not produce spores 
can be killed at a temperature of 140 "^ to 180° Fahrenheit, it 
is a well-known fact that some spores are able to resist heat at 
boiling temperature for sixteen hours or more. Many bacteria 
show great adaptability to temperature conditions. Drying or 
dehydration for a long period of time will kill many organisms, 
but, on the other hand, spores may withstand drying for years. 
Sterilization to kill spores as well as the ordinary bacteria forms 
may be accomplished by applying boiling temperature for a cer- 
tain length of time on each of three successive days. Certain 
resistant spores will germinate within twelve to twenty-four 
hours after the first treatment ; but heating on the second day 
will kill these ; and the third treatment is a safeguard which will 
destroy all remaining "germs" in most cases. This intermittent 
or repeated sterilization with a constant temperature of 212° 
Fahrenheit is perhaps a safer method and will assure success 
more often than a single period of sterilization at the same tem- 
perature for a longer length of time. 

Almost all the bacteria which are so resistant to heat when in 
the spore state are abundant in cultivated soil and therefore pres- 
ent in pods, husks, and different parts of such vegetables as 
com, peas, and beans, which contain food upon which the spore- 
bearing forms thrive. The presence of these bacteria upon the 
parts of vegetables to be canned is therefore almost inevitable. 
The difficulty of sterilization is increasingly great when such 
vegetables have been bruised, allowed to stand, or have in them 
decayed portions. When fruit skin is broken, molds fall to work 
and open the way for bacteria to enter and start the decay. If 
the juices of these plants become infected with spores of these 
various species, the problem of sterilization is more difficult. 



BACTERlOLOCiV OF CANNING 23 

All bacteria in the spore state can also be destroyed by sub- 
jecting them to a temperature of 240° to 250° Fahrenheit, moist 
heat, but special apparatus, as the steam-pressure canner, is neces- 
sary to produce such temperatures. For this reason the method 
known as intermittent sterilization finds wide use among house- 
keepers and Canning Club members who do not possess steam- 
pressure canners. This method of fractional sterilization consists 
of applying boiling temperature to vegetables, already packed in 
glass or tin, for a certain period on each of three successive days, 
sealing the jar immediately after each boiling or "processing" 
if the lid has been loosened to take care of the expansion caused 
by the heat. Between each daily processing the containers are 
kept at ordinary temperatures, under which the spores not killed 
by boiling develop into the more easily killed vegetative or grow- 
ing state, which are then destroyed by the next period of boiling. 
If spores are present in the jars or cans, rarely do they fail to 
thus develop and be destroyed by the third processing (Fig. 11). 
For peas and corn, properly selected and handled carefully, proc- 
essing for one hour in a water-bath at boiling on the first day, 
and repeated on the second and third days, will ordinarily steril- 
ize these foods in quart jars or No. 2 cans. The flavor of such 
vegetables thus processed is considered by many to be finer than 
when the vegetables are subjected to very high temperatures, as 
in the steam-pressure cookers. Treatment for one hour on three 
successive days is perhaps the safest method to follow with hot- 
water canners, when canning such vegetables as sweet potatoes, 
peas, corn, beans, etc. It is dangerous to use minimum periods of 
processing, because during some seasons there are occasional "out- 
breaks" where fields are infected with an unusual type or a larger 
number of bacteria than ordinarily exist. Some fertilizers cause 
the fibers of plants to toughen, and it is more difficult for heat to 
penetrate them, therefore a longer sterilization period is required. 
Every precaution should be taken to counteract the influence of 
such danger by cleanliness, careful handling, and rapid working 
from one stage to another during the entire process of canning. 

Enzymes. — In addition to the action of "germs" or minute 
organisms, the spoiling of fruits and vegetables is hastened by 



24 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



natural elianges, which result from the action of enzymes or unor- 
ganized fermenting agents found in nature (the pepsin of the 
stomach is an illustration) which, while not cellular organism like 
bacteria, do break down and decompose foodstuffs. .These changes 




Fig. 11. — Bacillus butyricus (roda and spores found in corn). 

take place with varying rapidity in different foods and injure the 
quality of the food. The delicate flavors of many fruits are thus 
destroyed when they are allowed to stand too long, and become 
stale before being canned. This is an important reason why all 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNINCJ 25 

fruits and vegetables should be canned as quickly as possible after 
being- gathered. The canner need not pay great attention to 
enzymes, because they are killed as soon as heated. 

Classes of Bacteria. — A classification of bacteria in reference 
to their need of oxygen is especially helpful to the canner ; from 
this point of view, bacteria are of three classes : 

1. Aerobic — require free oxygen. 

2. Anaerobic — can live without free oxygen (Fig. 12), 




; 





Fig. 12. — Anaerobic pea bacillus. 

3. Facultative (Aerobic, anaerobic) — can live with or without 
free oxygen. 

Aerobic bacteria obtain the oxygen necessary for the process 
of multiplication from the air, and if the air is cut off they either 
remain dormant or die. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their supply of 
oxygen from organic compounds such as carbohydrates and pro- 
teins. This class sometimes causes more violent fermentation 
when forced to grow in the absence of free oxygen than when 
growing naturally; being deprived of free oxygen, the tearing 



26 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

down of organic compounds is accomplished with great rapidity 
to supply the required oxygen, while the multiplication is les- 
sened. This fact accounts for the rapid spoilage of goods which 
have been improperly sterilized. The anaerobic bacteria bring 
about decomposition with the evolution of a large amount of gas 
(Fig. 13). This gas may accumulate in quantities sufficient to 
bulge and even to break the container in which it is sealed (Fig. 






./' 









Fig. 13. — Bacillus meoatherium (the vegetating forms as found in a can of peus). 

14). When products in tin bulge from the presence of gas inside 
they are known as "swells." Some bacteria have l)een described 
which bring about decomposition in vegetables and meat without 
evolution of gas. They give evidence of their presence by the 
development of peculiar odors and flavors. These are known as 
"flat sours." 

A large percentage of losses in canned goods is due to the 
facultative anaerobes. The anaerobic bacteria, however, cause 
spoilage in many cases where others are destroyed because the an- 
aerobic belong to the soil and are spore-bearing and have the 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CAKNTING 



27 



power to withstand very high temperatures and afterwards de- 
velop. Most all of the anaerobes are known as bacilli ; that is. 
they are rod-shaped. 

Facultative aerobic or facultative anaerobic bacteria belong 
to a class which accommodate themselves to whatever condition in 
which they may be placed : 

Facultative aerobes are anaerobic by nature, but will grow 
in an aerobic state ; that is, in air. 

Facultative anaerobes are aerobic by nature, but will grow in 
an anaerobic state ; that is, wiiere air is excluded. 




1 1' 




'1 
i' i 






Fi ;. 14. — (a) Can burst from pressure of gas generated; (b) a normal can; (c) a swell. 



Nearly all bacteria found in improperly sterilized sealed con- 
tainers are spore-bearing organisms, either anaerobic or faculta- 
tive anaerobic. If there should happen to be a leak in the can, 
any variety may enter and set up decomposition. Non-sponi- 
lating varieties are always destroyed at boiling temperature (212° 
Fahrenheit) ; so unless there is a leak or the sterilizing is incom- 
plete, this variety will not be present. 

A partial vacuum is an ideal environment for the growth of 
anaerobic bacilli, since free oxygen interferes with the multipli- 
cation of these germs. On the other hand, they require oxygen 
for growth, but they must obtain it by breaking down substances 
that contain oxygen in chemical combinations. 

Partially cooked material offers a more suitable medium for 
these germs, because the cellulose or fiber is softened and there is 



28 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PKESERVING 



usually more surface exposed, and the juices are richer in carbo- 
hydrate or albuminous matter, as the case may be. The danger 
from these bacteria is not so great where absolute cleanliness is 
exercised and waste material is properly disposed of. Many bac- 
teria which are capable of setting up putrefactive processes will 
thrive luxuriantly on a great variety of cooked foods, when, as a 
rule, they will not grow readily on whole raw materials. 

Perfect Seal Important. — Putrefaction is sometimes found in 

imperfectly sealed and sterilized 
canned meats and vegetables. 
This may be due to insufficient 
sterilization or to leaky cans. In 
the process of putrefaction there 
are various ptomaines and toxic 
poisons formed which sometimes 
cause considerable trouble. 

Testing the Seal. — (a) In 
glass. After fruits and vegeta- 
bles are canned and set aside until 
entirely cold, the jars may be 
tested by removing the clamp and 
attempting to lift the lid from the 
jar. If the lid comes off, the jar 
was either not properly sealed or 
the contents are fermenting and 
may have to be discarded. If the lid remains tight, the chances are 
that the contents are keeping (Fig. 15). When faulty sealing 
alone exists jars may be reprocessed and the contents saved. 
However, protein foods are sometimes attacked by bacteria 
which thrive without the presence of air, and which decom- 
pose canned foods without producing any gas. When these 
have not been killed by processing, the food may appear good 
and the jar remain sealed when it is spoiled. These spoils 
in tin caused by bacteria which decompose food without form- 
ing gas are known as "flat sours"; with them the can is not 
bulged and shows no indication of spoiling. When such products 
are opened they are slimy and soft and they are acid to the taste. 




FiQ. 15. — Testiug the jar seal. 



BACTEIUOLOGY OF CANNING 29 

(6) In till. The time to detect the leak is when the can is first 
put into the sterilizer ; a shower of bubbles will be seen coming 
from the defective seal. If the can is removed immediately and 
retipped or capped, the contents may be saved in good condition. 
Occasionally the attempt is made to save defective cans, when 
they are detected after the processing, by reopening the tip hole, 
repairing tlie can, exhausting and reprocessing for the regular 
time. Products handled by this careless method are very likely 
to cause most serious stomach and intestinal complications. This 
practice is a very dangerous one. 

After cans are cooled, before stacking them, they are some- 
times tested by tapping the end of the can with a piece of metal. 
A clear, ringing' sound indicates that the can is air-tight. If a 
dull sound is heard when the metal strikes the lid, the can should 
not be stored with the lot. A trained or experienced ear can very 
quickly detect from the sound wiien all is not well within. 

Substances Injurious to Bacterial Growth. — Many bacteria 
in growing give rise to substances such as acids which are more 
or less injurious to the cell life. The accumulation of acids and 
other substances produced by bacteria interferes with the bacterial 
growth and their power of multiplication. We have examples of 
this in the "flat sours" and also in the brining of vegetables. 
The acid i^resent when frothing ceases above the brined cucum- 
bers (lactic acid) is strong enough to kill most of the bacteria 
in the brine. It is this lactic acid which cures and keeps the vege- 
table if the air is excluded from it at this stage, and the forming 
of scum yeast at the surface of the brine is prevented. Many 
manufacturers do not know that their brine contains acid, yet the 
instant it does not contain it the pickle begins to deteriorate. A 
full explanation of this process is given in the chapter on ' ' Pick- 
ling, " page 190. One of the principal factors in the manufacture 
and preservation of sauer-kraut is the development of lactic acid 
in quantities sufficient to act as a preservative. Bacteria, yeast, 
and molds are of value in preparation of foods such as vinegar, 
pickles, sauer-kraut, cheese, bread, and butter. 

Methods of Preserving Foods. — Just at this point it may be 
helpful and interesting to consider methods of preseiwing food, 



30 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

with a brief explanation of how each method accomplishes its pur- 
pose. To understand these fundamental reasons enables one to do 
canning and preserving more skilfully. The four methods com- 
monly used are preservation of food by drying, by preservatives, 
by heat, and by cold. 

1. Preservation of Food hy Drying. — This method perhaps was 
one of the first known. In primitive times food was exposed to 
the direct rays of the sun for the purpose of drying it. This 
method is practiced at the present time, but more frequently the 
product is subjected to a higher temperature. In the process of 
drying a considerable portion of water is eliminated and many of 
the organisms present are destroyed. Bacteria, yeast, and molds 
cannot develop when the moisture in any food is very much 
reduced below the original amount. The same is true when cer- 
tain disinfectants, such as smoke or the fumes of sulfur dioxide, 
are used in the cure. Meats and fish are frequently dried after 
a preliminary smoking or salting. Many food materials contain- 
ing an abundance of starch are sufficiently dried in the natural 
process of ripening and drying ; for example, certain nuts, such 
as chestnuts and the grains. Meats, meal, or flour containing the 
same amount of moisture as raisins or prunes would quickly spoil. 
Fruits are usually readily preserved by drying on account of 
their high sugar content. A dried or partially dried food should 
be sealed from the air to prevent gross contamination and to pre- 
vent moisture being absorbed due to its hygroscopic nature. 

2. By Ilarmlcss Preservatives. — The most commonly used of 
these preservatives are salt, sugar, vinegar, and certain spices. 
In the presence of these, bacteria and yeast cannot grow success- 
fully. Products such as jellies, preserves, and pickles are easily 
kept because of the presence of one or more of these preservatives. 
While the sugar or spices used may prevent fermentation, molds 
are likely to occur on these foods unless sterilized and sealed to 
protect them from the air. This can be done with all of the prod- 
ucts, except jellies, by always processing and sealing after packing 
them into the containers. Jelly can be protected from mold 
by pouring over it a thin layer of melted paraffin when cold and 
covering it tightly. 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 31 

Sodium cliloride (salt) is used for dry-salting fish and some- 
times other meats. The salt rapidly removes a part of the water 
and thus forms a medium which is not suitable for the growth of 
bacteria. This is a physical action, because it is brought about by 
greatly increasing the osmotic pressure. Some preservatives act 
chemically by direct antiseptic action upon the microorganisms. 
Preservatives that inhibit the growth of organisms by their chem- 
ical action as antiseptics belong in two classes: (a) those which 
are produced in the food as a result of fermentation of the food 
material being packed ; (&) those which are added directly to the 
food. 

(a) Self -fermentation as Preservation.. — Among the products 
in which preservation is achieved through the results of fermen- 
tation, in the process of curing, are pickles, olives, onions, sauer- 
kraut, cauliflower, and some pickled meats and various other raw 
materials. Lactic acid formed by the action of lactic acid bacteria 
upon sugar may develop in sufficient quantities in certain foods to 
preserve them indefinitely against further change if properly 
handled. The preservation of ensilage is largely due to the lactic 
acid and other acids which are formed during the process of 
curing. 

(b) Preserving poivders and other chemicals added to foods 
for their preservation are considered detrimental to health. Not 
only are foods containing them in quantity less wholesome, but 
their use encourages carelessness and the putting up of food which 
is unsound and unfit to eat. Benzoic acid and salicylic acid and 
their salts, and formaldehyde, boric acid, and borates are some- 
times used. These compounds were purposely added by some of 
the early eanners to shorten their sterilization period. Fortun- 
ately this method has largely been superseded by the more reliable 
and less expensive sterilization by heat only. 

Some products, such as ketchups, sauces, and "fruit sundaes," 
preserved with such chemicals as salicylic acid, benzoate of 
sodium, and borax, are still on the market. In many cases this 
method is used because the buyer prefers this class of goods, even 
when he knows that preservatives have been used to keep them 
in an unfermented state. Hotel and soda fountain trade some- 



32 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

times prefers goods treated in this way because they will not spoil 
so soon after being opened. Sometimes tomato ketchup and fruits 
for sundaes will not keep for more than a week after the bottles 
or jars are opened. Frequently fermentation sets in about the 
fourth or fifth day, and mold will sometimes be visible to the eye 
in five or six days, if they have been sterilized by heat only. So 
long as the buyers ' trade will accept food which is bought in large 
containers and has been allowed to stand around open for days at 
fountains and in hotels we may expect these preservatives to be 
used. This method is cheaper and requires less care and skill than 
the putting up of individual packages for each patron's service. 
It is undoubtedly true that in a majority of cases it is advisable 
to preserve food materials whenever possible without the addition 
of antiseptics. They are unnecessary, and, though the actual 
effect on the body of some is unknown, the burden of proof rests 
upon those who employ them. 

3. By Means of Heat. — Two methods of heat application may 
be used — pasteurization or sterilization. In pasteurization the 
food is raised to such a temperature that the organisms of certain 
types, but not necessarily all organisms, are destroyed. This 
process is ordinarily applied to milk and cream and to certain 
alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine. In some cases this 
results in a prolongation of the time during which the food may 
be used. 

Sterilization by heat implies the use of a sufficient degree of 
heat to destroy all organisms present; and when the entrance of 
other organisms into the sterilized food is prevented it may be 
preserved indefinitely. In the preservation of foods by heat it is 
necessary that a temperature be selected such tliat will destroy all 
organisms capable of producing undesirable changes and yet 
cause no undesirable changes to take place in the food itself. 
The antiseptic action of the acid found in some fruits and vege- 
tables is so increased by the temperature of boiling water that it 
quite certainly sterilizes the product. Foods containing a large 
proportion of sugars are also easily sterilized by boiling. Vege- 
tables such as corn and peas are much more difficult to preserve, 
inasmuch as they contain neither acid nor sugar in considerable 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 33 

quantities and are ordinarily infected with certain of the anae- 
robic spore-bearing bacteria which are capable of withstanding 
high temperatures. 

The heat used in the preservation of food by sterilization pro- 
duces few changes other than those which would be accomplished 
by ordinary cooking. Heat will not injure the flavor very much 
unless it is prolonged. 

Since sterilization or preservation by means of heat is the best 
way to retain the natural flavors and wholesome qualities of fruits 
and vegetables, this book will deal chiefly with this method of 
keeping these foods. 

4. Preservation of Food in Cold *9^ora(/e. — Practically all 
foods can be kept for a time by the use of low temperatures. Cold 
does not kill, but arrests the growth of organism. Some foods can 
be kept indefinitely by freezing. Meats may be held for some 
time at this temperature without deterioration ; in fact, for a time 
with marked improvement in tenderness and flavor. Some bac- 
teria may develop at temperatures below freezing-point of water, 
but not if they are in a medium which is solidly frozen. The 
length of time that food products may be kept in cold storage 
without danger to the health of the consumer is a disputed ques- 
tion, but it undoubtedly varies widely according to the nature of 
the food. 

QUESTIONS 

1. To what is the decomposition of foods due? Mention some changes 

which take place during the decomposition of foods. 

2. In what fundamental way do molds, yeast, and bacteria differ from 

the plants with which we are most familiar? 

3. What is the distinction between parasites and saprophytes? 

4. Describe briefly the characteristics of molds, including their necessities 

for growth and their manner of growing and reproducing. 
.5. Why do molds readily attack fruits ? 
G. How may mold be prevented from growing on the top of jelly? Explain 

your answer. 

7. What is yeast? Describe briefly the manner of its growth and the 

necessities for it. 

8. What are bacteria? State one way in which they differ definitely from 

molds and veast. 



34 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

9. Why is it more difficult to can beans anil meat than it is to can fruits 
and tomatoes? 

10. What is meant by spore-bearing bacteria? How do spores differ from 

bacteria in their tenacity of life? 

11. Why are spore-bearing bacteria almost invariably present upon fruits 

and vegetables? 

12. Why is it necessary to have sound fruits and vegetables for canning? 

13. What tale does a bruise on fruit or vegetalde tell to one versed in the 

elementary facts of bacteriology? 

14. Why is intermittent processing at 212° Fahrenheit a surer method of 

sterilization than a single processing for a longer time in a water- 
bath ? 

15. What advantage has a product processed by fractional sterilization 

over one processed in a steam retort? 
IG. Why is it well to can fruit as soon as possible after it has been picked? 

17. How can you explain the rapid spoiling of food which has been imper- 

fectly sterilized? 

18. Describe " swells." What is the cause of them? Describe " flat sours." 

What is their cause? 

19. Why is a large percentage of spoilage in canned goods due to anaerobic 

bacilli ? By what care can we reduce the danger of that to a 
minimum ? 

20. Why is a leaky can or imperfectly sterilized product extremely dan- 

gerous? Wliat substances are formed in the process of putrefaction? 

21. Under what conditions are bacteria, yeast, and molds of use in the 

preparation of food? 

22. What four methods are commonly used in the preservation of foods? 

23. Upon wliat principle is the preservation by drying based? Why are 

fruits more easily preserved l)y drying than are meats, fish, etc.? 

24. Name the substances which may be classed as harmless preservatives. 

From the attacks of what forms of microiirganisms do these protect 
foods? Explain the preserving power of two of these harmless 
preservatives. 

25. Why should preserving powders be condemned even when their in- 

jurious effects cannot be proved? 

26. What responsibility has the public in the continuance of the use of 

such powders? 

27. What is the aim in the preservation of foods by heat? 

28. WHiat is meant by pasteurization? By sterilization? 

29. Why are foods much more easilj^ sterilized by boiling when there is 

present a certain amount of sugar and acid? 

30. Why is much care and skill necessary in the preserving of corn, peas, 

etc., by heat alone ? 

31. Why can foods be kept for a certain length of time in cold storage? 



BACTERIOLOGY OF CANNING 35 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W., LTnited States De])artment of Agriculture, Bureau of 

Chemistry, "The Canning of Foods," Bulletin No. 151, 1!)12. Super- 
intendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 10 cents. 

2. Bitting, A. W., United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of 

Chemistry, " Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning of Foods," 
Bulletin No. I9G, May, 1915. Superintendent of Documents, Govern- 
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 10 cents. 

3. Buchanan, Estelle D., and Robert Earle, " Household Bacteriology," 

1913. The Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $2.25. 

4. Conn, H. W., "Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home,'' 1912. Ginn 

& Co., New York City, N. Y. $1. 

5. DucKWALL, Edward Wiley, " Canning and Preserving of Food Products 

with Bacteriological Technique," 1905. The Pittsburgh Printing 
Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. $5. 

6. Elliott, S. ]\Iaria, " Household Bacteriology," 1910. American School 

of Home Economics, Chicago, 111. $1.50. 

7. Jordan, Edwin O., " Bacteriology," 1912. W. B. Saunders Company, 

Philadelphia, Pa. $3. 

8. LoHNis, F., and Smith, N. R., United States Department of Agricul- 

ture, Journal of Agricultural Research, " Life Cycles of the Bac- 
teria," vol. 6, No. 18, 1916. Superintendent of Documents, Govern- 
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 25 cents. 

9. McElroy, K. p., and Bigelow, W. D., LInited States Department of 

Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, " Canned Vegetables," Bulletin 
No. 13, part 8, 1893. 

10. Van Ren.sselaer, ^Iartha, Cornell Reading Courses, " Household Bac- 

teriology,"' January, 1913. New Y^ork State College of Agriculture, 
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y'. 

11. Wiley, Dr. Harvey W., "Foods and Their Adulteration," 1911. P. 

Blakiston's Son Company, Philadelphia, Pa. $4. 

12. " Bacteriology of the Household," in Lippincott's Home Manual Series 

(in preparation). J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia. 



CHAPTER Til 

PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 

The same general conditions hold for canning indoors or out 
of doors. Convenient equipment, carefully selected and ar- 
ranged, surroundings clean and free from dust, and a plentiful 
supply of water are among the essentials. 

INDOOR CANNING 

During certain seasons of the year weather conditions make 
it more comfortable to work indoors. Small quantities of fi-uit 
or vegetables can be more conveniently handled in the kitchen 
than out of doors. 

Arrangement of Equipment. — When canning in the kitchen, 
a part of the work, such as sorting, washing, cutting, and peel- 
ing, may be done on the porch. Jars may be sterilized and brine 
and syrup made in the kitchen while the fruit is being prepared 
on the porch (Fig. 16). After cooking, which with vegetables 
may include blanching and with fruits may involve plumping, 
the cooling and packing may be done on the porch, provided it 
is screened against bees, wasps, flies, and other insects which are 
attracted by the odors of the products being canned. The at- 
tractive odors of the fragrant fruits and spices are alluring to 
these insects. 

Utensils Used in Preparation, — Only the equipment neces- 
sary for convenient, accurate, and efficient w^ork should be se- 
lected. First, it is well to consider the utensils necessary for the 
washing, peeling, coring, and slicing in the preparation of the 
fruit and vegetables. For washing, it is best to use small brushes 
having strong bristles, bowls for the water, and pans for drain- 
ing. Some good types of knives for paring and peeling, selected 
with reference to comfortable handling and well-shaped cutting 
edge, are shown in the illustration. Since coring and slicing of 
fruit are constantly being carried on in cooking operations the 
year around, it is worth while to provide these inexpensive uten- 
36 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 37 

sils, which will also add to the efficiency of these operations in 
canning. Good types are shown in figure 16. 



■ 




^s 


ftfjl -^^twwig -^ > ^^^^^^W 




Q^I^^M 


S^^!S.m^«S^^^>^ff*•»*?.-A-.t«»»•»fW..2^W*:r -^ - . v .- l^^H 



FiQ. 16. — A group of useful utensils for washing, peeling, coring, grating, and slicing fruit 

and vegetables. 




Fig. 17. — Special equipment necessary to obtain most successful and accurate results. 

Successful results largely depend upon the accuracy with 
which directions are followed. With this idea in view, a small 
special equipment is suggested. For measuring liquids, the one- 



38 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

half pint glass cup and enarac4 or aluminum quart measure will 
be sufficient. Tin utensils are objectionable because fruits are 
discolored by them. In securing level measures of dry material 
the use of a spatula is suggested. It has many other valuable 
uses. A flat cane paddle used in packing may be substituted for 
the spatula. Scales are invaluable when undertaking canning in 
large quantities. The clock must be constantly consulted to in- 
sure correct time for the various steps in the processes of canning 
and preserving. The saccharometer is suggested for the purpose 
of measuring the density of syrups used in canning fruits ; ther- 




FiG. 18. — Utensils used in blanching and in cooking. 

mometers aid in the jelly-making process, as well as in making 
jams and marmalades. A fuller description of their use is given 
in the chapter on ' ' Preserving. ' ' A salt percentage scale is used 
to determine the density of brine for use in pickling ( Fig. 17 ) . 

Utensils Used in Cooking and Processing. — The equipment 
thus far described is useful in preparation of fniits and vege- 
tables for canning. Next to be considered are utensils for cook- 
ing and processing. In the blanching necessary for some fruits 
and vegetables a large vessel for boiling water is necessary. This 
must be large enough to immerse wire baskets containing the 
fruit to be blanched. The same pan or tray used later in the pre- 
serving serves here for transferring the dripping baskets or 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



39 



blanching' cloth to the cold bath which follows the blanch in many 
cases. The large preserving kettle illustrated is useful in many 
ways. It might be used for the blanching vessel, the preserving 
kettle, and even as the processor. It is economy to have it of the 
most durable material possible. Two ladles — one cup-like with 
pouring lip for liquids, and the other flat and perforated for 
skimming — will be helpful during the cooking as well as when 
filling the containers (Fig. 18). 




Fio. 19. — The processor and rack with jars ready to be sterilized. Note all clamps are 
raised and screw-top only partly screwed on. 

In processing, which is described later, it is necessary to have 
a tightly covered vessel large enough to sterilize a convenient 
number of jars at one time. A rack which will raise the con- 
tainers from the bottom of the sterilizer must be used to allow 
boiling water to circulate beneath as well as around the con- 
tainers being sterilized. This rack is most convenient when it is 
supplied with handles so that all the jars on it may be lifted at 
one time (Fig. 19). Wire hot- jar lifters will prevent burning 
fingers (Fig. 20). 

Cooperative canning also is a method of minimizing labor 
(Figs. 21 and 22). 



40 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

OUTDOOR CANNING 

There are many advantages and pleasures in canning out of 
doors, especially when large quantities of farm products are to 
be taken care of in the shortest possible time. Outdoor canning 
gives opportunity for cooperative work among clubs and neigh- 
bors. In cooperative canning the minimum amount of labor, if 
well organized, will give larger and better results. This work 
has stimulated many women and girls to spend more time in the 
open and bring other tasks out of doors. Choose a shady, green, 
cool spot convenient to the water supply for the canning. The 
fact has been mentioned before that insects are attracted by 
odors from the fruit being canned, and it might be well to 
consider baiting fly-traps near where the canning is done (Fig. 




Fig. 20. — Tongs for handling hot cans. 

23). Flies prefer nitrogenous food to sweets, and if the 
traps are properly baited with milk clabber or meat they will 
be less attracted to the products being canned (Figs. 23 and 24). 
In addition to the equipment already described above under "In- 
door Canning," there are important matters of special concern 
in outdoor canning. 

Arrangement of Tables. — Tables of the proper height should 
be conveniently arranged for different steps of the work. The 
diagram shown offers a suggestion for placing of tables with 
reference to the canner, especially when canning in tin (Fig. 25). 

Table 1 is equipped for the sorting, washing, blanching, peel- 
ing, and coring. It should be as few steps as possible from the 
canner, to save time and labor in the blanching process. 

Table 2 should be placed near Table 1, because the fruit is 
passed to this table for packing, weighing, and adding of brine 
or syrup. 

Table 3, w^hich is for capping and tipping and should stand 
level, should be near the canner, because of the numerous trips 



PREPAEATION AND EQUIPMENT 



41 




42 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




PREPARATIOX AXD EQUIPMENT 



43 



to be made between them. Table 3 might be omitted if one is 
canning- in glass only. Illustrations show other convenient ar- 
rangements of tables for out-of-door canning (Figs. 26 and 27). 
When tin cans are used it necessitates the use of tipping cop- 
per and capping steel. Sometimes the same fire which heats the 
water in the canner is used' to heat these tools. A little oil stove 
which burns a gas flame is certainly worth having for heating the 
tools. It gives a hotter and cleaner fire than the wood fire in 
the canner ; it heats the steel more quickly and saves cleaning and 
retinning the tools so often /7'\, 

(Figs. 28 and 29). 

A portable canner is a 
necessary convenience for out- 
of-door canning. This may 
either be homemade or pur- 
chased. There are a number 
of portable canners at reason- 
able prices on the market at 
present. Considering the fact 
that most concerns furnish 
tipping copper, capping steel, 
and blanching trays with the 
outfit, it is cheaper to buy 
one complete than to attempt 
to build one and purchase a 

set of tools. The essential ^^'•- 23.— a homemade fly-tmp. 

feature of such a canner is a good, large fire-box, above which 
is a compartment for heating water. In the water compart- 
ment are placed two or three wire baskets for handling a quantity 
of fi-uit at one time in blanching or a number of jars or cans in 
processing. A wooden rack placed below these baskets raises them 
above the fire-box and allows circulation of the water around jars 
and prevents breaking during the processing. For this tank 
there must be a close-fitting cover (Fig. 30). 

A large tub of cold water for cooling tins should be placed 
beside the canner. When canning in glass out of doors, a cloth 
should be provided to place over the jars immediately after re- 



in 


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44 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



moving them from processint]:, to prevent the cold breeze from 
striking the glass and breaking it. 



SELECTING CONTAINERS 



Types of Containers. — The type of container is very impor- 
tant and should be considered when the first equipment for can- 




Fia. 24. — Mississippi club girls building a fly-trap for out-of-door canning. 



ning is secured. The most essential feature to consider is a 
perfect closure ; then the size and shape desired for different 
products. 

Tin Cans.— When canning is to be done in tin and the buying 
is to be direct from the manufacturer, it is very necessary to order 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



45 



the cans as early as possible to take advantage of the lower prices 
offered before July 1. Many firms close their factories after 
this date, and will not consider any order in less than carload 
lots. The same thing is true in some of the glass factories. If 
3'ou anticipate canning in large quantities, make an estimate for 
3'our dealer or order early from the manufacturer. Tin cans 
are designated by number rather than by the measure of liquid 
they carry, as is the case in glass containers (Fig. 31). Flat 




Fig. 25. — A convenient arrangement for out-of-door canning. 



No. 1 cans are the smallest that are advisable for use in home 
canning, and their use is very limited. The No. 1 flat or squat 
can is more attractive than the tall No. 1 for the most of the prod- 
ucts packed in so small a tin, and is especially desirable for such 
packs as sweet Spanish pimientos, figs, tomato paste, etc. .The 
No. 2 tin can is the size most generallj^ used for canned vege- 
tables and small fruits. Corn and peas are more easily sterilized 
in this size tin. and for that reason these products should not 
be packed in any larger container. No. 3 can is used more often 
in some localities than No. 2, especially for canning peaches, 
tomatoes, pears, etc. (Fig. 32). 



4C 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND rRESERVING 




PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



47 




Fig. 27. — Canning tomatoes from the scholarship plot, State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. 




Fig. 28. — A kerosene stove which burns a gas flame for heating soldering tools. 



48 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



The enamel-lined can is necessary when canning berries, plums, 
cherries, beets, pumpkin, and hominy, which may not be packed 
in the ordinary tin cans, because they are affected by the tin in 
such a way as to rapidly lose their color and flavor. Figs also 
will keep a brighter color when packed in these enamel-lined 

cans. When enamel-lined cans 
cannot be secured, these prod- 
ucts should be packed in glass. 
A No. 10 can is sometimes 
used for tomatoes and spinach, 
but in such a large container 
a great deal longer time is re- 
quired to sterilize food ; there- 
fore it is better suited for hotel 
and institution canning. It is 
not generally advisable to pack 
in No. 10 cans unless process- 
ing is done under steam pres- 
sure. Sometimes fruits are 
packed in these containers in 
a thin syrup during the very 
busy season, then opened, 
cooked more, and repacked in 
marketable containers during 
the less busy season, as the 
orders come in. This is not 
practicable, however, unless a 
Fig. 29 —a fire-pot burning corn-cobs ygyy Iblys^q quantity of ripening 

for heating tools. A gasoline fire-pot or char- •' o n .' i c 

coal bucket may also be used. ivWll lUUSt bc takcu CarC of iu a 

very short while, and time cannot be allowed for plumping and 
careful packing. Often semi-tropical fruits are handled in this 
manner in the orchards and shipped to the large packing-houses, 
where they are repacked in smaller commercial containers be- 
fore marketing. 

The square tin cans are sometimes used for asparagus tips. 
In California such a container is more generally used for this 
product than the round can. 




PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



49 



The cans described above are those which cau be secured with 
solder hemmed caps. 

"Sanitary" Cans. — The so-called "sanitary" cans are widely 




Fig. 30. — A folding portable canner. (Courtesy of Plamp Williams, Hot Springs, Arkansas.) 




Fic. •"! 1 . — Standard sizes of lin containers. 



u>sed by commercial packers. They require a machine for seal- 
ing. A small hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans 
is illustrated here (Fig. 33). The cans with the proper closure 



50 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



to use in this maohine are a little more expensive, perhaps, than 
the regular cans in stock, but the time and material saved by 
this process more than cover the extra charge. This method 




Fig. 32. — Size of cans used for household purposes. 



eliminates the use of solder and canning flux in the sealing of 
cans. If machinery cannot be employed hand tools will be 
necessary (Fig. 84). It is necessary to designate the size when 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 



51 



ordering cans, since the diameter of the opening should cor- 
respond with that of the capping steel to be used. There are 
two sized openings, 2Vip,-ineh and 2Vi6-inch. Cans with the 




Fig. 33. — Hand machine for sealing special sanitary cans. (.Courtesy of Bowers Can Seal 
Company, Boston, Mass.) 



2Yjg-inch opening are more generally used. The solder hemmed 
caps are preferable, because they save solder and time in put- 
ting them on. Plain tin caps are not worth considering. 



52 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Glass containers are more varied in sizes and shapes than the 
tin and lend more opportunity for displaying a variety of at- 
tractively packed products, both for the home pantry and for 
market. Throughout this book suggestions are made from time 
to time about salable products in commercial packages. This 
is for the purpose of encouraging the canning, preserving, and 




Fig. 34. — Capping steel and tipping copper. 

selling, of surplus products. The highest quality of commercial 
products on the market should tend to stimulate ideals and 
standards (Fig. 35). These jars can be obtained in one-half 
pint, pint, quart, and one-half gallon sizes. 

Selection of Jars. — Jars should be selected with reference to 
suitable size and shape for the product to be packed, keeping in 
mind economy in the initial purchase and. durability. Other 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 53 

important considerations are beauty of proportion, tint and 
quality of glass. Not only are these qualities considered by 
those who are packing for high-class sales, but also by the house- 
wife who enjoys artistic expression through arrangement and 
preservation of beautiful form and color in skilful packing. The 
square jar is effective for showing quality and pack. 

Lightning Seal. — The wide-mouth glass-top jar with wire clamp 
which is attached to the neck of the jar is a satisfactory one. A 
jar with this closure is known as one with a "lightning seal." 
This seal is made by different manufacturers and put on the 
market under various trade names. A jar with this closure is 




Pig. 35. — A group of jars for household use. 

an easy one to handle while the jar is still hot. Immediately 
after processing and sterilizing it is necessary only to push down 
the lower clamp around the neck of the jar. This gives the 
amount of pressure necessary to assist in the sealing of the jar 
as it cools. The rubber used is placed in the groove of the neck 
of the jar, and the cap fits down on the top of the rubber, 
which prevents the bottom of the glass top from coming in direct 
contact with the top of the jar. It is the rubber that makes 
possible this seal by adhering to both the top and the jar. Every- 
thing must be very hot to obtain a good seal, and for this reason 
directions are often given for cooking the fruit in the jar. 
This heating drives out some of the air, forming a partial 
vacuum in the jar. At this point the clamp is pushed down, 
preventing entrance of air as the jar cools. The jar is then 



54 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



sealed by the pressure of air on the outside. Sometimes a jar of 
this type is spoken of as a "self -sealing" jar. This sort of seal- 
ing has great advantage over the old screw-top jars. 

Screw-top jars which demand handling while hot are difficult 
to screw on tightly enough to insure good sealing. If the tops 




A B C 

Fig. 36. — Commercial jars for special produrts: A. 10-ounre vase-shaped jar, hermetic top. 
B. 12-ounce glass-top, screw-rim jar, rubber used. C. 10-ounce jar with hermetic cap. 

are screwed down by hand, the wrists become tired and cramped 
before many are sealed, and it is uncertain whether all are suffi- 
ciently tight. There is a simple tool on the market for screw- 
ing on tops. 

The zinc top should not be used, because fruits and vegetables 
which contain acids are unfit to eat after contact with the 
zinc cap. New tops should be secured for all jars of this 
type. The glass used in this type jar is usually tinted. While 
the fruit will be easily kept in this glass, it gives the fniit an 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 55 

unnatural appearance, and it is not so attractive. When pack- 
ing: fresh fi-uit and vegetables for sale, the fair natural color 
enhances the value of the finished product. 

Safety-valve Seal— The jar with the safety-valve seal is beau- 
tiful (Fig. 80, c). It is made of clear flint glass, and the seal is 
the same principle as the lightning seal. While being processed 
the lid is held in place by a wide black clamp which may be re- 




.4 B c 

Fig. 37. — Appropriate containers for exhibit purposes: A. Quart square jar. B. Cham- 
pagne shaped ketchup bottle. C. Pint square jar. 

moved when the jar is cold and sealed. It then presents a yery 
attractive appearance. Jars of this type are more expensive 
than the other types mentioned. They are often used by select 
preserving kitchens that funiish goods for high-class, fancy trade 
(Figs. 36, 37 and 38). 

The '^Hermetic" Jar. — The hermetical sealing jar with the 
gold lacquered cap and wire clamp is used more often for com- 



56 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



mercial purposes, though there are some household jars of this 
type on the market The cap is said to be washed in a gold 
lacquer that Avill not be affected by vegetable or fruit acids 
coming in contact with it. Around the inside edge of the cap 
a gasket or rim of sealing composition fills the space between the 
cap and jar, and this softens when heated and adheres to the 








Fig. 39.— Stoneware jars. (Courtesy of Western Stc 



jmpany.) 



jar. The sealing of this jar is practically the same as the light- 
ning seal jar. Heating forces out the air and forms a partial 
vacuum in the jar; then the wire clamp, which should be 
placed on the jar at the beginning of the process, furnishes 
sufficient pressure to prevent cold air from rushing into the jar 
as it cools. It is the pressure of the outside air, nearly sixteen 
pounds to the square inch, which keeps the jar sealed. Com- 




f^^ 




Fig. 38. — Hand sealing machine for glass jars. 
(Courtesy of American Pure Food Process Co., Baltimore, Md.) 



PREPARATION AND EQUIPMENT 57 

mereial products are often packed in jare with tliis type seal. 
Because the sealing composition is under the edge of the cap and 
not exposed, it is not so liable to become punctured by mice 
and roaches nibbling it, as is sometimes the case where rubbers 
are used. 

Rubber rings dry and deteriorate with age. They become 
porous and sometimes crack. When this happens, the air gets 
in and, because the partial vacuum is broken, the seal is no 
longer good and the product will spoil. A perfect seal, where 
the rubber ring is exposed, will hold only so long as the life of 
the rubber lasts. In selecting rubber rings it is wise to secure 
the best and always use new ones. The price of a dozen rings 
is less than the value of the contents of one jar, so it is economy 
to have new rubbers each year. The thick, red and gray rubber 
rings are among the best. The black one is better than the 
white, because the chemicals used to bleach this kind cause 
it to dry. crumble, and crack in less time than the better-grade 
iiibber. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the care necessary to protect the food from insects while work- 

ing on the porch or under tlie trees. 

2. When considering a piece of equipment, what would determine its 

selection ? 

3. What principles are involved in the arrangement of tables in Fig. 10? 

4. State, in the order of their importance, the features to be considered in 

the selection of containers. 

5. Why are plain tin containers unsatisfactory for some fruits and vege- 

tables? What kind of containers would you use for these foods? 
When is glass preferable to any other? 

6. Describe the principle of the so-called " lightning seal." 

7. When a rublier ring is used in the seal, which kind would you select and 

why should it be renewed every year? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 
1916. The National Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 30 
cents. 



58 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

2. Breazeale, J. F., United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' 

Bulletin 359, " Canning Vegetables in the Home," 1910. Secretary 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. Breazeale, J. F., United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' 

Bulletin 521, " Canning Tomatoes at Home and in Club Work," 1913. 
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

4. Gould, H. P. and Fletcher, W. F., United States Department of Agri- 

culture, Farmers' Bulletin 426. " Canning Peaches on the Farm,' 
1910. Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, 
Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

5. McDonald, May C, and Stanley, Louise, University of Missouri, " The 

Preservation of Food in the Home," vol. 15, No. 7, Extension Series 6, 
March, 1914. University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 

6. Rose, Flora, Cornell Reading Courses, " The Preservation of Food 

in the Home," 1912, parts 1, 2, and 3. New York State College of 
Agriculture, Cornell University, Itlipca, N. Y. 

7. Shaw, S. B., North Carolina Department of Agriculture, " The Home 

Canning of Fruits and Vegetables." North Carolina Department of 
Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. 

8. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 

Office of Extension Work in the South: A-81, "Canning, Preserving, 
and Piv'kling"; 782, " Peppers"; 775, " Use of Vegetables from Win- 
ter Garden." Office of Extension Work in the South, States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

9. United States Department of Agriculture, Series of " N. R. Circulars," 

Office of Extension Work in the North and West, States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

10. Farmers' Bulletin No. 734, " Fh'traps and Their Operation": Farmers' 

Bulletin No. 927, " Home Conveniences," Division of Publication, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D, C. 



CHAPTER IV 



CANNING IN TIN 



Since canning in tin is becoming much more widely used in 
the househokl, it may well be presented first. On the farm, for 
instance, where there is a large yield of fruit or vegetables to 
be canned, the canning process in tin can be handled with more 
speed, less danger of breakage, and at a very much smaller 
initial cost than canning in glass. For all these reasons, in many 
localities the canning in tin is preferred. 

Preparation for Canning in Tin. — Special equipment for 
canning in tin should be assembled early in the season, as prices 
are better then and there may be difficulty later in securing 
certain supplies, as already suggested. The cans should be 
ordered early and the processing vessel, whether it be a com- 
mercial canner or one made at home, should be installed some 
time before the actual canning is to begin. When the canner is 
decided upon and the solder hemmed caps and cans ordered, 
the next to consider is the tipping copper, capping steel, and a 
file. To clean these tools, a canning flux should be made and 
some powdered sal ammoniac placed in a can to rub the tools 
with after heating. 

Making Flux. — Put some commercial hydrochloric (muri- 
atic) acid in a glass or crockery vessel (not metal), add strips 
of sheet zinc until no more can be dissolved. To this add an 
equal quantity of water. Label this "Flux" and use carefully. 
Very little must be used, and care must be had not to allow any 
of it to enter the can, as it will injure the contents. The use of 
flux is described under "Capping." When canning, have one 
vessel (a can will do) with enough flux in it to clean the tools. 
Keep separately, in a glass bottle, the quantity to be used in 
sealing cans. 

Cleaning and Tinning the Steel and Copper. — It is of first 
importance to have capping steel and tipping copper in good 

59 



GO SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

condition. In case they are nasty, they may have to be filed. 
Otherwise, rubbing them with coarse sand-paper or on a brick 
will smooth them. Care must be taken to keep the edge of the 
capping steel true if the file is used. Both the tipping copper 
and capping steel must be kept tinned or coated with solder to 
make the solder flow evenly when sealing the cans. Place a 
handful of sal ammoniac mixed with a few pieces of solder (one- 
half cupful of sal ammoniac and three inches wire solder) into 
an old can. This proportion will be sufficient for retinning 
the tools one time. The sal anmioniac can be used again if 
more solder is added. Heat the already smooth tipping copper 
and capping steel until almost red hot, dip into the flux, then 
into the sal ammoniac and solder, turning them about and 
rubbing them until bright and well coated with solder; then 
dip into the flux again. The best sealing can be done with the 
least effort if the tools are kept in a clean, bright condition. 

Plenty of clean white cloths should be at hand during the can- 
ning process. There should be wire lifters for handling hot cans 
and blanching trays. Sufficient wood should be piled near the 
eanner for keeping up the fire. A tub of cold water for cooling 
the tins as soon as they are removed from the processor should 
be at one side of the eanner, and there should be a water supply 
near at hand, because it will be necessary to change the water 
from time to time in order to have a cool supply. The equipment 
should be placed, if possible, where it can be used for the entire 
season. 

Having outlined a convenient arrangement of this equip- 
ment, the various steps in the process of caiming in tin may next 
be considered. 

STEPS TAKEN IN CANNING IN TIN 

1. Selection of good sound fruit and vegetables is of para- 
mount importance. Unless the product to be canned is of the 
highest grade and in prime condition, it is useless to hope that 
special care and skilful packing will result in anything more 
than disappointment and failure. In securing fine quality, much 
depends upon having the vegetable or fruit absolutely fresh, 



CANNING IN TIN 



61 



crisp, aud clean, and kept cool. All gteps, from beginning to 
end, of any lot of canning should be carried through as rapidly 
as possible. A good slogan is, " One hour from the field to the 



can. 



2. Sorting and grading sliould be done VQvy carefully, ac- 
cording to the size and degree of maturity and ripeness. Use 
only uniformly well-ripened products (Figs. 40 and 41). Dis- 
card all defective ones, and use together those of the same size. 
In canning, the flavor is retained only when young, tender. 




Fig. 40. — Sorting and grading tomatoes. 

quickly grown vegetables are used. Commercial concerns some- 
times have what they call grading paddles. They consist of a 
flat board with holes, which correspond to the opening in the 
glass jar in size. Peaches, for instance, which are too small 
are set aside to be packed as sliced p caches or for sweet pickles, 
and the ones which are too large are kept together, while all 
that slip through easily are made up together in one batch. 
This grading before cooking simplifies sorting when packing, 
saves much time, and gives a more uniform product throughout. 
3. Scalding, Peeling, and Coring. — Some fruits, such as 
peaches and tomatoes, are scalded in order to peel them smoothly. 



6S 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Put fioiit or vegetables to be scalded into trays or sciuares of 
cheesecloth and lower into boiling water for one minute (Fig. 
42). Remove at once to prevent cooking. Plunge into cold 
water, which prevents softening of the fruit and causes it to 
shrink, making the skin more easily peeled from the flesh. When 
the skin does not come off clean without tearing bits of flesh, 
it is an indication that the scalding has not been successful. 
This may be due to having the fruit too green, to overcooking, 
or to adding a large quantity of fruit at one time, which too 




Fig. 41. — Uniform tomatoes together. 



quickly cools the water. A slender-pointed knife is useful for 
peeling and coring. 

4. Blanching consists of plunging the vegetable or fruit into 
a large amount of boiling water for a short time. A wire 
basket or square of cheesecloth serves for handling large quan- 
tities of fruit at one time. The blanch gives a more thorough 
cleaning, because the scalding water tends to remove the bacteria 
from the surface of the fruit or vegetable. It also improves the 
flavor and removes strong odor and flavor from certain kinds of 
vegetables. The fruit shrinks in the blanch and becomes more 
flexible. A full pack is then more easily made. The time re- 



CANNING IN TIN 



63 



quired for blanching varies with the state of maturity of the 
different fruits and vegetables. Blanching peaches and pears 
gives them a more transparent appearance, better texture, and 
mellow flavor. Using it for cherries will prevent splitting and 
cracking. Spraying fruit with cold water after blanching will 
make it liner. Sometimes it is well to drop the vegetable into a 




Fig. 42. — Scalding tomatoes, using a square of cheesecloth. 

cold salt-bath for an instant after the blanching to make it more 
crisp. In the case of green beans, peas, and okra, such a cold salt 
dip may help to keep the green color. 

5. Sterilizing containers is very essential before packing 
them. This may be done while the fruit is being sorted. Wash 
the cans and drop into boiling water for ten to fifteen minutes. 
On removing them from the water, turn open ends down on a 



64 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

clean towel to keep out dust aud air. If stackinj]^ them, turn 
open ends of two cans together. 

6. Packing. — The can should be filled as full as possible with- 
out crushing pieces. There should be no space which would 
allow the pieces to move about and bruise and break one another. 
In general, when packing in tin for the market, it is well to do 
sufficient weighing to insure minimum weights from falling below 
the standard chosen. Federal and most state laws require that 
cans be filled as full of food as is practicable for processing, 
and that they contain only enough liquor to fill the space and 
cover the contents. Plan in advance and work rapidly. Do not 
allow filled cans to stand before adding liquid and exhausting, 
because to do so will injure the product. Add seasoning and 
mark the cans wdth pencil or knife to show contents. 

7. Adding Water, Brine, or Syrup. — Add the liquid to 
within one-fourth of an inch of the top. Shake the can and tap 
gently on the table to dispel air within the can. Now clean 
and wipe the groove around the opening and slip on the solder 
hemmed cap (Fig. 43). 

8. Capping. — ^Use a small brush, cord, or little mop, made by 
tying a clean white cloth around the end of a small stick for 
applying the flux around the groove, being very careful to 
allow none of it to enter the can. The flux is used to make the 
solder adhere to the tin. Apply the clean, hot capping steel, 
holding the cap firmly in place wdth the center rod while lower- 
ing the steel. Turn the steel steadily until the solder flows: 
a half turn forward, a half turn back, with a sudden twist 
forward again to swing the melted solder around the groove 
evenly while lifting the steel. Hold the center rod firmly until 
the solder cools, making a perfect seal. 

9. Exhausting. — Place the cans in trays and lower into boil- 
ing water to within one inch of the top to drive the air out of 
the cans. Let them stay the shortest time possible to drive out 
the air. Dense foods like corn and sweet potatoes require a 
longer time for exhausting than products which are more juicy. 
The denser foods are poorer conductors of heat, and it takes a 
longer time for the contents in the center of the can to become 



CANNING IN TIN 



65 



heated. Ordinarily three minutes is long enough for exhausting 
cans not larger than No. 3. Exhausting is necessary. If omitted, 
the air left in the can expands, causing it to bulge. The can 
may not resume normal shape, or, if it does and is exposed to 




Fig. 43. ^Capping 



Fig. 44. — Tipping. 



a wanner temperature, it may again expand, giving the appear- 
ance of a "swell." Future orders may be cut off because of a 
single can like this. The presence of air in the can may cause 
the tin to dissolve more rapidly and enter into the food. 

10. Tipping. — Immediately after exhausting, close the small 
5 



66 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



hole at the top of the can. Dry the cap, apply flux as for 
capping, and use a little wire solder (Fig. 44). Hold the hot 
tipping copper in the right hand, placing the point over the hole, 
and barely touch the solder to it. Bring the hot copper ver- 
tically over the hole and lift it so that only a bead will drop 
and make a neat, round tip. 

11. Processing is heating to sterilize the contents of the cans, 
which have been packed, exhausted, and tipped. In a hot-water 
canner, the water should be boiling vigorously when tihe cans 
go in. Lower the can slowly under the water and watch for a 
shower of bubbles. If the bubbles are seen, this shows that there 




Fia. 45. — Heating tools, capping, and tipping. 

is a leak at the point from which the bubbles come, and the can 
must be taken out and resoldered. Account should be taken of 
the time beginning when the water first boils after emerging 
from the cans. Keep it boiling continually. When processing 
in a steam-pressure canner, begin counting time when the gauge 
denotes the amount of pressure you wish to use in processing. 
In intermittent processing, the vegetable is processed for forty- 
five to sixty minutes at boiling temperature on each of three 
successive days. The time is sometimes reduced to two days 
with very young, fresh string beans and other more easily 
sterilized vegetables. 



CANNING IN TIN 



67 




68 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



12. Cooling. — Cool all products in tin as quickly as possible 
after processing to stop the cookinc;. Overcooking breaks down 
the texture of fruit and injures the flavor and color. Plunge 
cans into very cold water immediately, especially when process- 
ing intermittently. Never stack cans together until entirely 
cold. The cans should be dried before storing to prevent rust- 
ing. This may be done by either drying them with a cloth or 
standing them in the sun after the plunge in cold water. 

13. Test for Defects. — Tap the top of the can with a metal, 
and if the containers are sealed a clear, ringing sound is noticed. 
If the seal is imperfect a dull sound will be heard. It is a 
common sight in factories to see a workman beating a rapid 




Fig. 47. — Labelling. 

tattoo on the ends of cans with a metal. He can detect by the 
sound of a single blow when all is not right (see Figs. 45 
and 46). 

14. Labelling.- — Cans should never be labelled until perfectly 
cold (Fig. 47). It is better to wait five or ten days so as to be 
sure that they are all sound. If products are to be sold, they 
should be freshly labelled just before shipping and have the 
net weight stated in pounds and ounces, with packer's name 
and address on each can. Place the sealed end down so the 
smooth end will appear at the top when standing on the shelf. 
The paste used should be placed only on the label at the end, 
so that no paste will touch the tin. It may cause rust if the 
paste touches the can. 



CANNING IN TIN 69 



Paste : 



1 cupful of Hour 1 cupful of cold water 

1 teaspoonful of powdered alum V2 teaspoonful of oil of cloves 

3 ctipfuls of boiling water 

Mix the flour and one cup of cold water thoroughly. Add 
the boiling water and bring slowly to the boiling-point, beating 
all the while to prevent lumps. Boil for -five minutes. When 
cooked, add the alum and oil of cloves, pour into glasses with 
covers. This will keep for some time and make an excellent 
paste for use in labelling cans and jars. 

Frequently the outside of the cans is lacquered before label- 
ling to prevent rusting. In damp climates, where cans rust 
easily, this is advisable. An attractive label will add a great deal 
to the appearance of the finished product, and it should be 
chosen carefully with this idea in view. 

Any one wishing to can for the market should look up the 
state laws and requirements about the matter. It is not so neces- 
sary to be familiar with the Federal laws unless interstate ship- 
ments are to be made. Detailed information on state laws and 
regulations may be obtained by writing to the State Food Com- 
missioner, State Board of Agriculture, and Federal rules and 
laws can be secured from the Bureau of Chemistry, IT. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Write for the publica- 
tions and state what products are being packed for sale. 

This information is given for the benefit of those who are 
canning for commercial purposes; every one who cans for the 
market should be encouraged to know the food laws. Such things 
sound more serious than they are, and one should not be over- 
whelmed with the seemingly endless details attached to the can- 
ning business. New facts pertaining to food conservation are 
being published constantly, and those who are interested in the 
various phases of the subject should keep informed by securing 
from their State College of Agriculture, State Experiment Sta- 
tions, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and the National Can- 
ners' Association, from time to time, all publications and reports. 



70 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the meaning of efficiency in canning? 

2. Describe the equipment needed and its arrangement when preparing to 

can in tin. 

3. How is "flux" made? For what is it used? 

4. What is your standard for the external appearance of a tin of fruit or 

vegetable? What steps are necessary to secure this standard? 

5. Describe how to coat with solder the tipping copper and the capping 

steel. 
G. When such a tin has been opened, what standard should the contents 
equal? What steps are necessary to secure this standard? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See end of Chapter VI, page 86. 



CHAPTER V 

CANNING IN GLASS 

Canning in glass is very similar to canning in tin. The 
same principles hold good throughout. The initial cost of con- 
tainers is greater than when canning in tin, but for home use 
it is more economical, because glass is used year after year, 
while tin should be used only a single time. 

The first four steps under "Canning in Tin" are also to be 
followed when packing in glass (see p. 60) ; the additional steps 
are given below. Convenient arrangement of all equipment is 
veiy essential before undertaking the work. 

5. Sterilizing. — Jars should be washed and placed, side down, 
in a vessel and covered with cold water. The water should be 
slowly brought to a boil and allowed to boil for fifteen minutes 
(Fig.^48). 

6. Packing. — After selecting and sorting the fruit or vege- 
table for uniformity in ripeness and size, and after blanching it, 
the fruit should be arranged in the jar with reference to sym- 
metrj^ and the best use of the space within the container. In 
placing the fruit or vegetables into a jar, a thin, flexible paddle 
or spatula, made out of cane or hard white wood, is useful. It is 
important to have a good, clear syrup. Clear, soft, or distilled 
water should be used. Sometimes better results could be ob- 
tained if the quantity of water used for making the syrup could 
be first boiled, strained, and cooled before using. Mix the sugar 
and water by stirring as it heats, to be certain the syrup is 
uniform (Figs. 49, 50, and 52) . 

7. Paddling. — A more slender paddle is used for taking 
bubbles of air out after the liquid has been added. This is done 
by running the paddle down the side of the jar and touching 
the bubble with the rounded end of the paddle. The air creeps 
up the paddle to escape and is displaced by the liquid. More 
liquid should be added after paddling in order to have the jar 

71 



rs 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



full to overflowing. These paddles can easily be made at home 
(Fig. 51). Bamboo cane is suitable material for making them: 




FlQ. 49. — Parking; iinifurm ]iicrcs of rlniliarb. 



an old fishing pole vn\l do. Split the cane, cut the paddle nine 
to twelve inches long, leaving a joint at the top for a handle, 



CANNING IN GLASS 



73 




F19. 50. — Well-packed jar of peaches. 



74 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Whittle the other end until Hat, thin, and flexible. Then sand- 
paper. If green bamboo cane is used, place in the sun to dry 
after making the paddle. 

8. Adjusting the Rubber and Cap. — Be sure the rubber is 
carefully flattened in its groove and no particle of finiit or seed 
is present on it before placing on the cap. When a glass-top 
jar with wire clamp is used, place the lid on evenly and raise 
both clamps up, the upper one fastened to hold the lid in place. 
When a screw-top jar is used, screw the 
cap evenly about half way. With a her- 
metic jar no rubber ring is necessary ; 
simply fasten the cap in place on the 
jar with the clamp. The hermetic jar is 
self-sealing as it cools, and does not need 
to have any adjusting of the cap or clamp 
after processing, as is the case with each 
of the other above-named jars ; simply 
leave the clamp in place until the jar is 
entirely cold. 

9. Processing. — Place the jars on a 
wooden, galvanized, or wire rack to hold 
them o& the bottom of the processor, 
which is directly over the fire. Sometimes 
a cloth is put in the bottom of the vessel 
before placing jars, but this is not a good 
practice, since the weight of the jars 
presses the cloth against the bottom 
of the processor and often causes it to stick and burn. A rack 
which holds the jars up an inch or two off the bottom is better. 
In a hot-water canner the water around the jars should be of 
the same temperature as the contents of the jar to prevent them 
from cracking, and the water should come within two inches of 
the tops of the jars. Have a tight cover for the vessel to keep 
in the steam. Do not count time until the water begins to boil. 
Keep it boiling steadily for the time required. Seal the jars 
air-tight promptly at the end of the processing, and remove 
them from the bath, being extremely careful not to allow a cold 




-Paddles: a. Packing 
b. Syrup paddle. 



CANNING IN GLASS 



75 




7G SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

draught to strike them. In intermittent processinjj: raise the 
clamj) of the jar at the beginning of each processing to allow for 
expansion. Seal at the close of each processing. The hermetic 
jar is not a suitable one for intermittent processing. Processing- 
in glass in a steam-pressure eanner is described in a later chapter, 
"One Period Processing (Under Steam Pressure)" (see p. 87). 

10. Labelling. — Each jar should be washed and polished 
before labelling. Here again the choice of the label should 
be made carefully. One just large enough to have printed 
the necessary recjuirements is sufficient. Choose a neat label : 
white is preferable, wdth plain, simple black printing. A fancy 
colored label may not be in harmony with the color of the 
contents of the jar and will detract from the attractiveness of 
the product. Place the label on the plain side of the jar, mid- 
way between the seams and one-quarter inch from the lower 
edge. When labelling products to be sold, the name of the 
contents, name and address of the packer, and net weight in 
pounds and ounces must be stated. 

Storing Canned Products. — Store the canned products in 
a cool, drv% dark place. Light \W11 cause the color of the 
products in glass to fade, while products in tin are, of course, 
not affected by light. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give in outline form and in order tlie steps neeessary when canning in 

glass. 

2. What steps in this process dift'er from the steps in canning- in, tin? To 

what are tlie differences due? 

3. Which container is more economical for home use? Wliy is tliis true? 

4. State definitely the principles which are tlie basis for all kinds of can- 

ning. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See end of Chapter VI, page 86. 



CHAPTER VI 
PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH 

Processing is the term applied to the operation of sterilizing 
or heating to destroy bacteria so that the canned goods will keep. 

All fruits and juicy vegetables, are better in color and 
texture if sterilized at or near the boiling-point (212° Fahren- 
heit). For this purpose the hot-water bath is commonly used. 
Sometimes these oufits can easily be made at home, according to 
the amount of canning which is to be done. 

Homemade Canners. — If only a few jars or cans are to be 
processed at a time, then Hat-bottom vessels, such as a wash- 
boiler, ham boiler, preserving kettle, or bucket deep enough, to 
permit of being covered after the jars or cans are placed on the 
false bottom inside, will serve the purpose (Fig. 53). "When 
any of these utensils are used it is necessary to have a false 
bottom on which to set the jars or cans while processing. Narrow 
strips of wood or wire netting made of medium-sized galvanized 
iron may be used for this rack. The vessel should be equipped 
with a tight cover, preferably tin, which is kept in place while 
the sterilizing is being done (Fig. 54). Such small outfits are 
intended for use on an ordinary cook stove or range. 

A homemade canner for use out of doors, where larger quan- 
tities can be handled, may be made out of tubs or fifty-pound 
lard cans. Heat for these canners is furnished by portable 
stoves, or by furnaces made of brick or stone (Figs. 55 and 56). 

Commercial Outfits. — The purchase of an expensive or 
especially made outfit in which to do the cooking is not necessary. 
There are, however, a number of inexpensive commercial out- 
fits which give very satisfactory results. Some of these canners 
are well built and excellent work can be done, both for com- 
mercial purposes and for home use. These outfits range in size 
from those having a four-can capacity to those having a capacity 
of a few hundred cans. The price varies according to size of 
the canner and the number of tools and accessories included in 
the outfit. 

77 



ry SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




Fig. 53. — An ordinary bucket used as a processor. 




Fig. 54.— a wash-boiler with false bottom makes a convenient ' 



PROCESSING! — HOT-WATER BATH 



79 



Manufacturers furnish catalogues li-aving full descriptions 
and price-lists of these various outfits, and in order to secure a 
canner best suited to conditions a study of different catalogues 
will help to make the decision. The requisites of a good com- 
mercial hot-water outfit may be enumerated thus : First, good 
quality of material used and of workmanship in the construc- 
tion ; next, the convenience and cost of operation, in order that 




Fig. 55. — Canner made of tubs for outdoor use. 

the best results can be obtained with the least possible ex- 
penditure of time, labor, and fuel. 

Equipment Accompanying the Purchased Canner. — The 
usual portable cauuer for out-of-door use consists of the following : 



Canner 
Fire-box 
Return flue 
Water tank 
Trays or wire baskets 
Chimney 
Tight cover 



Accessories 
Tipping cojjper 
Capjiing steel 
Can tongs 
Tray lifters 
Fluxing brush 
Cliarcoal bucket or 
Fire-pot for lieating 
tools 



Materials 
Bundle of wire solder 
Powdered sal ammoniac 
Bottle of flux 
Coarse sand-paper or 
file 



80 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Some caiiners are round and some rectangular in shape. The 
lower section or fire-box has a small opening in the door through 
which the soldering tools may be placed for heating. The water 
in the upper section will heat more quickly if a smoke passage 

is placed in such a way that the 
water chamber is heated from 
the smoke passage as well as 
from the fire-box. Sometimes the 
chimney is attached at the front 
of the canner near the fire-box 
door ; this necessitates the smoke 
returning from the outlet at 
the other end of the fire-box back 
to the chimney, and, if the 
water chamber extends down be- 
tween the smoke passage and 
the fire-box, the extra heat ob- 
tained in this way will cause the 
water to boil more quickly, thus 
saving time and fuel. The bas- 
kets or trays for holding the cans 
in the canner are made of gal- 
vanized metal, with a wire bot- 
tom and wire handles. This bas- 
ket serves as a false bottom and 
fits into the water tank, resting 
slightly above the top of the fire- 
box and smoke passages. A 
wooden rack should be placed be- 
low this basket when canning 
in glass so that the bottom of the metal tray will not rest directly 
on the fire-box. A basket full of cans may be lifted out with 
wire tongs. The top of the canner is fitted Avith a tight cover, 
which keeps in the heat (Fig. 57) . 

Canners should have water in the upper section before a fire 
is built; if this is neglected with the type of canner which is 




Fig. 56. — A homemade canner with 
brick fire-box and tub. 



PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH 



81 




Fig. 57. — Showing construction of a hot-water canner. 
(Phillips & Buttorff, Nashville, Tenn.) 



82 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



soldered together, the solder will melt and the water will leak out, 
making the canner useless until it is mended. 

The chimney should be tall enough to provide a good draught 
and to carry the smoke away. The smoke from a pipe which is 




Fici. 58. — A ktioseue etove 
burning it gas flame. (Globe Gas 
Light Company, Boston, Mass.) 




Fig. 59. — A folding two-burner gasoline stove. (W. J. Baker Co., Newport, Ky.) 

too short is most objectionable to those who are canning (Fig. 
56). 

For Heating the Tools. — The tools may be heated in the 
fire-box of the canner, but the suggested fire-pot, charcoal bucket, 
or gas-flame stove is better for this purpose, since the tools heat 
more quickly and do not have to be cleaned so often (Fig. 58) . An 



PROCESSING— HOT-WATER BATH 83 

ordinary bucket with a liole cut out of one side near the bottom 
will make a good sul>stitute for a fire-pot if charcoal or corn- 
cobs are burned in it. Care must be taken to have the fuel 
burned to a bed of glowing coals before attempting to heat the 
tools. This is necessary to keep the copper and steel smooth 
and clean (Figs. oS, 59 and 60). 

A Time-table for Use in Canning Fruits and Vegetables 
When the Hot-water Process is Used. — To obtain satisfactory 
results with these outfits, consideration should be given to the 
length of the sterilization period, which is indicated in the table 
below, in the column headed "Process." Since the temperature 
cannot be controlled below the boiling-point, it is necessary to 
start counting the time when the water begins to boil and keep 
the boiling constant throughout the process. Complete steriliza- 
tion can be obtained by following this table if the essentials as 
outlined in other chapters are fulfilled. 

Intermittent Processing. — The vegetable is processed for 
45 to 90 minutes at boiling temperature on each of three 
successive days. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe an outfit for processing by the hot- water bath which may be 

made at home. Explain the principle which makes necessary each 
detail described above. 

2. If purchasing a commercial hot-water outfit, what points should be 

considered? 

3. How will the position of the chimney on a commercial canner influence 

the time needed to heat the water? 

4. Describe a homemade fire-pot. What fuel may be used in it? In what 

condition should the fuel be before placing the tools in it? Why is 
this care necessary? 

5. Why do starchy vegetables require a longer processing tlian those 

containing a large percentage of water? 

6. Why is it necessary to keep the temperature constant during the 

processing? 



84 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



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86 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

BIBLIOCiRAPHY 

1. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

Published by Natl. Canners' Assoc, Washington, D. C. 30 cents. 

2. Bitting, A. W., Bulletin 9, " Processing and Process Devices," Na- 

tional Canners' Association, Washington, D. C. 

3. Commercial cattilogues from manufacturers of canners, glass and tin 

containers, and other e(iuipment. (See Appendix.) 

4. Creswell, ;Maby E., and Powell, Ola, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Farmers' ]5ulletin No. 853, "Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables," 
States Relations Service, Office of Extension Work South. U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

5. Creswell, Mary E., Georgia State College of Agriculture, " Home Can- 

ning of Fruit and Vegetables," 1915. Published by State College of 
Agriculture, Athens, Ga. 

6. " Creole Cook Book." Published by Picayune, New Orleans, La. 

7. Farmer, Fannie Merritt, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907. 

Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80. 

8. McKiMMON, Jane S., North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service, 

" Canning and Preserving with 4-H Brand Recipes," June, 1910. 
State Department of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. 

9. Spring, Helen M., " Individual Recipes in Use at Drexel Institute," 

1909. John C. Winston Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 25 cents. 

10. United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry: In- 

formation concerning state laws governing packages and labelling of 
canned products can be obtained from State Colleges of Agriculture. 
Similar information concerning interstate shipment of canned prod- 
ucts can be obtained from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D, C. 

11. United States Department of Agriculture, Circular A-81, "Canning, 

Preserving, and Pickling"; 782, "Peppers"; 775, "Use of Vege- 
tables from Winter Garden." Can be secured from the Office of Ex- 
tension Work in the South, States Relations Service, Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

12. United States Department of Agriculture, Series of " N. R. Circulars," 

issued by Office of Extension Work in the North and West, States 
Relations Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

13. Vanderbilt, Sadie B., Columbia LTniversity, " Physical and Chemi- 

cal Tests for the Housewife." Technical Education Bulletin No. 19. 
Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City. 10 cents. 

14. CrueSvS. W. v., " Farm and Home Canning," Circular No. 15.8, also 

" Canning Fruits and Vegetables," No. 1 ; jiublished by University of 
California, Berkeley, Cal. 



CHAPTER VII 

ONE PERIOD PROCESSING (UNDER STEAM 
PRESSURE) 

One general method of canning has been followed since the 
beginning of the nineteenth century, that is, sterilizing by means 
of moist heat. As the industry has developed there have been 
improvements made in the different steps of the canning process 
from time to time. Since all successful canning depends upon 
proper sterilization by means of heat, it can readily be seen that 
minor differences in procedure may be followed with success, 
provided the principle of applying sufficient heat to make the 
product sterile is carried out. 

Advertising material has frequently been issued calling at- 
tention to "New Methods " which were in reality simply varia- 
tions in procedure. The various terms in common use in different 
paiis of the country may be classified somewhat as follows : 

1. From the standpoint of when the product is packed into 
the jar. 

2. From the standpoint of the degree of heat used in steriliza- 
tion. 

In the first is found Avhat is sometimes called " The Open 
Kettle Method." Formerly in household canning the process 
consisted of cooking the fruit in an open kettle until it was sup- 
posed to be sterilized and putting it hot into hot jars. Since 
the food was open to contamination before the lid was put on 
the jar, mold was frequently found on canned fruits. With the 
exception of tomatoes it is practically impossible to keep vege- 
tables canned in this way. More recently widespread demand 
for canned products has brought into household use a safer 
procedure which has long been used commercially; that is, steri- 
lizing the food in the closed jar. When the practice of sterilizing 
food after it was packed in the jar was first begun it was often 
termed " The Cold Pack Method," because the products were 

87 



88 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

generally packed raw in jars. Later, however, this procedure has 
been modified, and now products of fine quality are usually 
blanched before packing with a final addition of hot water, hot 
brine, or syrup. Meats are pa'cked hot after a preliminary 
cooking. 

Under the second classification might be placed the terms 
designating the different temperatures applied in sterilizing. 
Processing certain products at boiling may be accomplished by 
either a continuous period of sterilization or intermittent periods, 
depending upon the difficulty of sterilizing the product. The 
procedure of sterilizing products intermittently has been termed 
" The Intermittent Method." Processing under steam pressure 
can always be accomplished in one period ; for this reason this 
procedure is called " The One Period Method." 

As a matter of fact, all juicy acid fruits and tomatoes never 
require more than one period of process at boiling temperature 
in the water bath, while other vegetables, such as peas, beans, 
corn, and sweet potatoes, are more safely processed if the products 
are subjected to a boiling temperature for one to one and one-half 
hours on each of three successive days. Only one period of proc- 
essing is necessary for sterilizing, even the products which are 
most difficult to keep, if they are processed under steam pressure. 

Even another classification has been made from the stand- 
point of the canner used. One procedure has been termed the 
hot water method, another the water seal method, another the 
steam pressure method, and so on. These terms have been most 
confusing to students and inexperienced canners because they 
are not based upon a clear understanding of the principles 
involved. 

From a bacteriological standpoint the canning of meats, 
protein vegetables, such as peas and beans, and the vegetables 
having denser tissues, such as corn, sweet potatoes, and pumpkin, 
is more safely accomplished with the steam pressure outfit. All 
bacteria in the spore state, however resistant, can be destroyed by 
subjecting them to a temperature of 240 degrees or 250 degrees 
Fahrenheit, moist heat, for vary'ing lengths of time. A steam- 
pressure canner is necessary to produce such temperatures. 



Fig. 62. 



Fig. 61. 





Figs. 61 and 62. ^A steam retort for home canning. 
(Northwestern Steel and Iron Works, Eau Claire, Wisconsin.) 




Fig. 63. — Another type known as the water-seal canner requires only a small amount of 
water and it can be raised quickly to the boiling point with the use of very little fuel. A 
slight pressure can be secured. 




Fig. 64. — Another steam-pressure outfit for home canning. 



ONE PERIOD PROCESSING 89 

Steam Retorts. — Iron boxes or steel cylinders, known as 
retorts, are used in processing by steam at a temperature above 
the boiling-point {i.e., higher than 212° Fahrenheit). The retorts 
may be vertical or horizontal, the size being determined by the 
number of cans to be handled daily. 

In the vertical retorts steam may be used alone or it may be 
introduced into water; in the horizontal retorts steam alone is 
used. Vertical retorts are used where canning under high tem- 
perature is desired in the home, and in small canning plants. The 
steam pressure may vary from five to fifteen pounds, thus giving 
a temperature of 220° Fahrenheit (105° Centigrade) to 255° 
Fahrenheit (124° Centigrade). The proper control of time and 
temperature is very important. This is regulated by recording 
thermometers and temperature controllers attached to the retort. 

Small Outfits for Home Canning. — An expensive equipment 
is not necessary when canning in small quantities at home. A 
variety of small steam canners for home canning are on the mar- 
ket (Figs. 61, 64 and 65). The prices vary according to the size 
and quality of material used in making them. The construction 
of these outfits resembles that of the regulation steam boiler. 
They are made of a high-grade metal, and the seams are so riveted, 
soldered, and joined as to make them water-tight and steam-proof. 
A band of packing is placed around the groove in the outer rim of 
the cover, which keeps the inside chamber steam-tight when the 
cover is clamped on. This part of the canner wears out after a 
time and should be replaced if the canner is to continue to give 
the best results. 

A brass pet cock which allows for the free circulation of steam 
and escape of dead air is screwed into the cover. This should be 
left slightly open while processing. 

There is "a dial gauge, the needle of which moves upward when 
the temperature of the interior of the canner rises above boiling 
(212° Fahrenheit). The figures on the face of the dial indicate 
the number of pounds of steam pressure and also its equivalent 
degree of heat. A safety valve is also attached. The "weight and 
arm" style valve automatically regulates the pressure inside the 
retort from one to fifteen pounds. The weight on the arm may be 



90 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

set at any point on the lever, as it is made to slide back and forth. 
When a certain time for the process is desired the steam gauge 
should be watched until it shows the required amount of pres- 
sure. Set the weigiit so that enough steam will escape from the 
valve to retain that temperature. After the processing the steam 
should be let off by raising the bar on the valve by opening the 
pet cock before removing the cover of the canner (Fig. 64). 

A wire basket or galvanized crate comes with the outfit. This 
is a great convenience, for it can be used in blanching, exhausting, 
and sterilizing. While sterilizing is in progress this basket or 
crate rests on a false bottom, which is sometimes made of galvan- 
ized iron. This permits of free circula- 
tion of steam underneath and around 
the cans. The capacity of a small retort 
is about 150 to 250 cans daily, and it will 
generate and hold about fifteen-pound 
pressure of steam. An outfit to be used 
in canning under steam pressure should 
be built of strong material and have suffi- 
cient attachments to determine and regu- 
late the temperature. The results of 
processing under steam cannot be as- 
sured without a thermometer; a gauge 
for reading steam pressure is a substi- 
FiG. 65.— Pressure cooker, tutc, slucc, Hs indicated iu the table 
below, a definite pressure gives a definite degree of heat (Fig. 65). 
A steam retort may be converted into a hot- water canner by 
filling the canner with water and keeping it at a temperature of 
212° Fahrenheit. Some outfits require that the steam be piped 
into the retort from a boiler tank. This is more often true with the 
larger and more expensive outfits (Fig. 66). Separate retorts 
which can be used over a stove or out of dooi's are made, and often 
gasoline burners are sold with them as a necessary accessory. 
Charcoal furnaces and a gas-flame oil stove will give good results, 
and they are less expensive and more easily handled. Other 
eanners have a fire-box built in ; when used out of doors the fire is 
protected and steam can be obtained more quickly (Fig. 64). 




ONE PERIOD PROCESSING 



91 




Fig. 66. — Commercial retorts where steam is piped in from the boiler. (Ileinz Company.) 

Time-table for Processing by Steam 



Name of product 


Blanch 


Season- 
ing 


Exh 
No. 2 


lUSt 

No. 3 


Temper- 
ature, F. 


Pressure 

in 
pounds 


Time 
No. 2 
can, 
pints 


Asparagus 

Beans 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Same 

as 
for 
hot- 
water 
can- 
ning 


Degrees 
240 
240 
228 
228 
250 
240 
250 
250 
240 
250 
240 
228 
240 
235 
250 
250 


10 
10 

5 

5 
15 
10 
15 
15 
10 
15 
10 

5 
10 

8 
15 
15 


M inutes 

30 
45 


Baby beets 

Brussels sprouts. . 
Corn 


30 
30 
80 


Egg-plant 

Hominy 


55 
50 


Okra 

Peas 


30 
45 


Potato, sweet 

Pumpkin 

Kraut 


70 
65 
20 


Spinach 


35 


Squash 


65 


Succotash 

Vegetable soup. . . 


60 
35 



Much time, labor, and fuel can be saved by sterilizing some of 
the heavy starchy products under steam pressure (see table above 
and Fig. 66). 



92 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

At sea level water boils at 212° F. As the altitude increases 
the temperature at which water boils g'radnally drops. This table 
gives approximately the temperatures at which water boils in 
different altitudes. 

500 feet aliove sea level, 211° F. 

1,000 feet above sea level, 210° F. 

2,000 feet above sea level, 208° F. 

3,000 feet above sea level, 20fi° F. 

4,000 feet above sea level, 204° F. 

.5,000 feet above sea level, 202° F. 

G,000 feet above sea level, 201° F. 

7,000 feet above sea level, I9!)° F. 

Since scientific investigations have not established accurate 
procedure for canning in altitudes high enough to reduce the 
temperature at which water boils much below 212° F., it is safer 
to use a steam-pressure canner when canning 500 feet or higher 
above sea level. With the use of this type canner definite tem- 
peratures of 212° F. and above can be maintained. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by the term " processing at a high temperature "? 

2. For wliat kind of foods is this method particularly advantageous? Ex- 

plain your answer. 

3. What two points must be watched constantly while processing at a high 

temperature? Explain your answer. 

4. How would you examine a steam canner to determine its value? 
o. What part of the best canner will deteriorate with use? 

6. What is the purpose of the "pet cock"? Where is it located? How 

should this cock be while processing? Explain your answer. 

7. Describe how to secure the pressure desired while using a steam canner. 

8. When a definite time is desired for the processing, from what point in 

this process will you count the time? 

9. What precaution should be taken before opening the canner? WHiy is 

this necessary? 
10. For what other method of canning may a steam canner be used? How 
can this be done? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See Chapter VIII, page 122. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FRUIT JUICES 

Value. — The many ways of using fruit juices make them a 
most valuable product to have on hand throughout the year. 

Medicinal. — Fruit juices were used almost exclusively for 
medical purposes until recently. It is still a common practice in 
Europe for physicians to send their patients to the vineyards to 
drink the fresh juices as they come from the press. 

Daily Menu. — The juices of such fruits as grapes, currants, 
cherries, blackberries, raspberries, plums, and apples make whole ■ 
some and delicious beverages, as well as being a pleasant addition 
to the daily menu. Nothing is more refreshing on a hot day than 
a cool fruit-juice drink, which may be easily prepared from bot- 
tled juices. 

The dessert may be varied with very little expenditure of 
strength, time, and money by the use of different fruit juices. 
These may be used in making sherbets, ice-cream, puddings, 
sauces, and gelatine desserts. 

Social Functions. — The combination of fruit juices makes an 
attractive fruit punch to be served at any social function. 

GENERAL PREPARATION 

Much depends on the methods used in picking, assorting, and 
cleaning the fruit used in making fruit juices, syrups, and 
vinegar. 

Picking. — It is important to select only ripe fruit ; green fruit 
gives too much acidity to the finished product, while over-ripe or 
spoiled fruit imparts a disagreeable taste. Shallow trays or 
baskets are better adapted for picking, because they prevent 
crushing and bruising of the fruit. 

Assorting. — Even after careful picking it is well to sort over 
the fruit on the trays, selecting only the sound fruit and discard- 
ing the imperfect pieces. 

93 



94 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Washing. — The fruit should be washed carefully to free it 
from adhering dust and dirt, which are always found in more or 
less amounts on freshly picked fruits. This is best accomplished 
by placing the fruit in a wire basket or colander and allowing a 
spray of water to run over the fruit. Often the fmit is bi'uised 
with the hands when washing it in a deep pail of water, so this 
method should not be used. It is important to use utensils which 
will not be affected by fruit acids. 



EXTRACTING JUICES 

The amount of work involved is relatively far less when the 
juice is extracted in large quantities than in small amounts, be- 
cause of the many labor-saving devices that are applicable if one 
is handling material in quantities. 




Fig. 67, — Household fruit-juice press. 

Cold Process. — This process consists of crushing and then 
pressing the fruit to facilitate the overflow of juice. An ordinary 
cider mill may be used for handling the fruit in quantities, but if 
only a small quantity is to be taken care of, the fruit may be 
crushed with a potato masher, food chopper, or fruit-juice press 
(Fig. 67). After crushing, the fruit is then pressed in a cloth by 
twisting the two ends in opposite directions (Fig. 68) until the 
greater part of the juice is extracted. 

A homemade press may be constinicted as follows : 



FRUIT JUICES 



95 



Fi^re 69 shows a very efficient lever press which any farmer 
who is handy witli tools can make for himself from material which 
can he fonncl on almost any farm at any time. The press consists 
of the following parts: Two upright posts (F) are set deeply and 
firmly in the ground, about twelve inches apart. It is well to 
attach cross-pieces (ordinarily known as "anchors" or "dead 
men") to the ends in the ground to prevent the posts from pulling 
out too easily. The lever (E) may be hung either between these 
posts by means of a bolt (T) or to the side of a building, or a 
hole large enough to admit the lever may be notched in a tree and 





Fig. 68. — Cloth press being twisted. 

a lever fastened by a bolt. At the other end are two posts, between 
which the lever can be raised by means of block and tackle. The 
press itself consists of two timbers (D) on which rests the press 
bottom (B). On this bottom is set a press basket (A), consisting 
of two sides and two ends held together by means of rods (L), 
and so constructed that it can be easily taken apart and put 
together again. The sides and ends are bored full of small holes, 
from three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, through which 
the juice is pressed. When the press is filled with fruit, the top, 
which fits inside the basket, and the cross blocks (/) are put on 



9G 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



and the lever caused to press down on them. A large tub (C) 
is placed under the press to catch the juice. The rope running 
through pulley block (6r) fastened to cross-piece (K) is used to 
lift up the lever of the press; while pressure or weights on the 
end of the lever (E) work the press. 

For ordinary purposes a press basket three feet square and 
two feet high, holding approximately two bushels of grapes, will be 




Fig. 69. — Construction of a homemade fruit press. 
Drawing made from illustration in U. S. Dept. ot Agriculture Farming Bulletin No. 758. 

found to be a very convenient size. It is perhaps well to state that 
the longer and heavier the lever, the greater the pressure exerted 
on the fruit. When it is not convenient to make the lever very 
long, weights are placed or hung on the outer extremity in order to 
increase the pressure. With a little ingenuity any farmer can 
adapt this press to suit his individual requirements (Figs. 70 
and 71). 

Sometimes in pressing grapes for beverages only the "free- 
run juice" is desired. This is the juice which is found between 
the skin and the pulp. Only sufficient pressure to burst the skin 
is necessary to secure this ' ' free-run. juice. ' ' This gives a product 
which is more brilliant, clear, fragrant, and delicately flavored 
than the "total juice." 



FRUIT JUICES 



97 



Hot Process. — Juices of small fruits may be prepared with 
or without previous heating, but heating before pressing increases 
the yield of juice, intensifies the color, and develops a more dis- 

FiG. 70. 




Fig. 70. — Fruit press ready for use. 
Fig. 71.- — Fruit press in use. (Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

tinctive flavor than can be obtained by simply cold pressing. 
There are, however, a few exceptions. Juices flow more readily 
from fruit when heated than when cold. When the fruit juice is 
to be used for jelly-making the hot pressing is necessary, because 
heat is essential to develop the pectin, the jelly-making sub- 
stance found in fruit juices. 
7 



98 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



If the berries or small fruits are to be heated before pressing, 
about oiie-half the quantity should be crushed with a wooden 
potato masher in the vessel in which it is to be cooked before heat- 
ing. Place the utensil containing- the fruit over a second vessel 
containing hot water, so that the fruit may be steamed instead of 
stewed until tender. A better color and flavor will be retained if 
the fruit is not allowed to come in direct contact with the fire. The 
temperature should not go above 200° F. The less juicy fruits re- 
quire addition of water and a longer heating to extract the juice. 




Fig. 72. — A homemade fruit-juice filter. 

Usual factory methods render the pomace, or cheese (the re- 
maining pulp), almost dry enough to burn. From an economical 
standpoint, squeezing the pulp is considered a good practice, ex- 
cept where the free-run juice alone is desired. When the juice 
is extracted it may be filtered by allowing it to drip through a 
flannel or felt cloth. Both the "free-run juice" and "total 
juice" should be carefully strained before bottling. After the 
juice has dripped through this filter, allow it to stand while the 
bottles are being sterilized, so that the suspended substances 



FRUIT JUICES 



99 



present ^\411 drop to the bottom and render the juice less turbid. 
Now the clear juice may be poured off without disturbing the 
sediment. The juice which has been strained should be pro- 
tected from the dust. This can easily be done if a strainer such as 
shown in figure 72 is used. 

PACKING 

Reheating- the Juice. — Some concentrated juices are packed 
cold, but thin juices will not keep unless heated to a temperature 
of 170° to 190° Fahrenheit. The temperature should never be 
allowed to go above 200° Fahrenheit. Fniit juices should never 
boil, because boiling injures the color and flavor. If a ther- 
mometer is not available to regulate the temperature, heat the 
juice in a double boiler and allow it to steam or simmer for five 
minutes. 




Fia. 73. — Bottling fruit juice. 

Bottling. — The preparation of fruit juices for bottling in the 
proper season requires little time and skill (Fig. 73). The juice 
should be poured immediately into hot sterilized bottles, allowing 
about one inch at the top for the expansion when the juice in 
the bottles is heated. If the juice is strained cold into the bottles, 
more space at the top should be allowed for expansion than when 
juice is packed hot. When juices are bottled for beverages, the 
addition of a small amount of sugar will produce a finer flavor. 



100 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

The proportion varies, but a fair allowance is one cupful of 
sugar to one gallon of juice. No sugar should be added to the 
juice when it is bottled if it is to be used for jelly-making later. 
This method of allowing the bottled juice to stand undisturbed 
insures the getting rid of tartaric acid crystals in grape jelly 
which are so objectionable. On standing, the tartaric acid crys- 
tallizes and the crystals settle. When the juice is to be used for 
jelly-making it should be poured off carefully, so as not to dis- 
turb the sediment which contains these crystals. 

Corking. — Soak new corks for one-half hour in warm soda 
water (one teaspoonful of soda to one quart of water), and then 
dip them into boiling water immediately before using. The corks 
should be placed loosely in the bottle before pasteurizing. Some- 
times a small circle of cloth is tied over the cork during pas- 
teurization to keep it from blowing out. This is better than 
using a patented device. Neither of these will be necessary if 
sufficient space is allowed at the top of the bottle when filling with 
juice and the water-bath is kept at the proper temperature. If 
the juice is to be tested with a thermometer in the containers, the 
sterilized corks may be floated on the water in the wash-boiler 
until the pasteurization point is reached. 

Pasteurizing is used here in place of sterilizing because of the 
low temperature used in heating fruit juices. 

An ordinary wash-boiler makes a simple homemade pasteurizer 
after fitted with a false bottom. This false bottom prevents 
the bottles from coming in direct contact with the bottom of 
the vessel. A free circulation of water around all sides of the 
bottles will keep them from breaking. The vessel should be 
filled with water to within two inches of the top of the bottles. 
Heat the water slowly and allow it to simmer for twenty to 
thirty minutes, the length of time to depend upon the size of 
the containers used and the kind of juice being pasteurized. 
Testing the temperature of juice in the bottles with a thermometer 
gives greater accuracy. If this test is used, allow the cleansed 
corks to float on the water in the boiler until the pasteurization 
point is reached. Heat the juice to 140° to 150° Fahrenheit and 
hold this temperature for thirty or forty minutes, cork the bot- 
tles, and cool to temperature of 70° to 75° Fahrenheit before 
removing the containers from the water-bath. 



FRUIT JUICES 



101 



Sealing. — Immediately after the pasteurizing the sterilized 
corks should be driven tig-htly into the bottles to seal them 
securely. Place the neck of the bottle on the edge of the table 
and with a sharp knife cut the corks off even with the tops of 
the bottles and seal air-tight with melted paraffin or w^ax (Fig. 
74). After cutting the cork, turn the bottle upside down and 
dip one inch of the neck into the melted wax, turning the bottle 
as it is lifted out to give a smooth coating to the sealing wax. 




Fig. 74. — Making sealing wax. 



Homemade Sealing Wax. — Melt together equal parts of 
shoemaker's wax and resin. This should be done in a pan over 
hot water to prevent scorching and to make it a pretty amber 
color. Dip the corked bottles into it after it has melted. 
Various colors may be obtained by adding the following in given 
proportions to the melted wax. To each three pounds of resin 
used add: 

For red color, Vs ounce Chinese vermilion. 
For black color, 3 ounces lampblack. 
For green color, 5 ounces chrome green. 
For yellow color, 5 ounces chrome yellow, 1 ounce shellac. 
For a white sealing wax, melt together 2 pounds white resin, 1 ounce 
white varnish, 1 pound beeswax, and % ounce zinc white. 



102 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Capping. — If a screw cap is to be placed on the bottle over 
the cork, the sealing wax should be omitted (Fig. 75). When a 
crown cap is used the bottles of fruit juice are usually pasteurized 
open and the cap crimped on by a hand machine immediately 
after the pasteurizing (Fig. 76), 





FiQ. 75. — Screw-cap bottle. 



Fig. 76. — A hand bottle sealing machine. (En- 
terprise Manufacturing Company, Philadel- 
phia.) 



Labelling. — The appearance of the package depends a great 
deal on the label. Before labelling, wash and polish each bottle. 
Place the label midway between the seams of the bottle and one- 
fourth inch from the lower edge. On each label should appear 
name of product, net weight stated in pounds and ounces, and 
the name and address of packer. Fresh clean labels should be 
placed on commercial bottles just before they are packed for 
delivery. 



FRUIT JUICES 103 

Storing. — All bottled fruit juices should be stored in a cool, 
dark, dry place. If left in a bright light the color will fade and 
the juice will be less attractive. Unfermented juices properly 
made and bottled will keep indefinitely if not exposed to the air 
or to infection from mold germs. When a bottle is once opened 
the contents, like canned goods, should be used as soon as possible. 
The bottles or jars should be small enough so that the contents 
may be used at once, and not allowed to stand until they spoil. 

SPECIAL PRODUCTS 

C'der. — Cider making requires a comparatively inexpensive 
equipment and involves only a small amount of labor. Cider 
is not considered a profitable commercial product, because it is 
bulky and perishable. By following the methods given for 
bottling other fruit juices, fresh cider may be easily kept through 
the year. Usually cider is sterilized at too high a temperature, 
which destroys the delicate flavor of the fresh juice and renders 
it unappetizing. The length of time cider may be kept open 
before it ferments sufficiently to be considered as becoming 
"hard" or sour varies with temperature conditions and also de- 
pends on the presence of fermenting agents. 

Concentrated Cider or Apple Syrup. — The sugar percentage 
is low in fresh cider, and it contains so much water that the 
market for it is limited. Methods of reducing its bulk and chang- 
ing it into an article which will keep throughout the year have 
been devised. Attention has often been called to the fact that 
when ordinary cider freezes part of the water separates and 
freezes, leaving unfrozen a concentrated cider having natural 
cider flavor and a reduced water content, a higher percentage of 
sugar and other solids. Experiments in boiling down fresh cider 
to secure a concentrated syrup gave a product with a distinctly 
acid flavor, due to an excess of acid known technically as malic 
or apple acid. The problem resolved itself into removing the 
excess of acid, and this was finally accomplished by adding car- 
bonate or milk of lime to the cider, which precipitates the acid 
and, after settling or filtering and boiling, yields a staple and at- 
tractive table syrup. This syrup has a fine flavor and will keep 



104 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

indefinitely in sealed containers like syrup made from cane or 
sorghum. Small quantities for home use can be made with 
ordinary utensils. 

Method for Making Apple Syrup. — The average farm house- 
wife who is provided with a large preserving kettle can easily 
make several quarts of apple syrup in her own kitchen. Although 
she may not find that she can sell her product profitably, she at 
least will find the method valuable in converting the windfalls 
of her own farm into a delicate and pleasant syrup for the use 
of her family. This product is a palatable and valuable food. 

Method.^ — To make one gallon of apple syrup, stir into 
seven gallons of apple cider five ounces of powdered calcium 
carbonate (carbonate of lime), whicli is a low-priced chemical, 
readily obtainable from a local drug store in the form of pre- 
cipitated chalk or powdered marble-dust. Heat the cider and 
allow it to boil for a few minutes. As the cider will foam 
slightly, it is necessary to use a vessel at least one-third larger 
tlian the volume of cider. Pour the cider, after boiling, into 
vessels, preferably half-gallon preserving jars, which permit the 
condition of the liquid to be observed. Allow the liquid to 
settle until perfectly clear. This will take several hours or over 
night. After the liquid is perfectly clear and shows a distinct 
sediment at the bottom, pour off the clear portion into the 
preserving kettle, being careful not to pour off any of the 
sediment. Add to the clear liquid a level teaspoonful of the 
carbonate of lime and again stir thoroughly. The process is 
completed by boiling down the clear liquid. Inasmuch as the 
liquid when boiling down foams more than on the first heating, 
the kettle should be only one-third full when boiling commences. 
Where a large kettle is not obtainable, the liquid will have to 
be boiled down in batches. Allow the liquid to boil rapidly. If 
the housewife has a thermometer, she should allow the liquid to 
boil until it reaches 220° Fahrenheit. Where no thermometer 
is at hand, boil the liquid until it reaches about one-seventh of 
the original volume, or until a small portion when cooled rapidly 



* From Year Book Separate 639, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



FRUIT JUICES 105 

and poured from a spoon shows about the same consistency as 
maple syrup. The aim is to make a thin syrup rather than one 
that will candy. 

When the syrup has reached this point, pour it off into the 
jars and let it stand where it will cool very slowly. Slow cooling 
is very important in making the syrup clear, as it allows all 
sediment and added substances to settle out completely. A con- 
venient way of bringing about this slow cooling is to put the 
vessels into a fireless cooker or to put the jars containing the 
syrup in a waslh-boiler, surround them with hot water, and 
allow the whole to cool. When the syrup has cooled to room 
temperature there will be found a white sediment, which is known 
to chemists as malate of lime, a harailess compound of the lime 
and the acid of the apples. This is identical with the product 
known as maple sand, which occurs naturally w^hen maple sap 
is boiled down into syrup. When the settling has been com- 
pleted, carefully pour off the clear portion of the syrup into a 
kettle, heat nearly to boiling, and pour hot into sterilized jars, 
which should be at once sealed. 

Another method would be to transfer the boiling syrup from 
the preserving kettle into the sterilized bottles and seal imme- 
diately. The sediment which appears at the bottom in no way 
affects the syrup. When ready to serve, simply pour off the 
clear portion, leaving the sediment, which is not easily disturbed, 
at the bottom. The syrup might also be bottled while cold, 
processed, and sealed as for fruit juices. The syrup will be a 
clear, ruby-colored product, possibly varying from a deep-ruby 
red to lighter shades, according to the character of apples used 
in making the cider. This syrup is similar in consistency to 
maple syrup, and can be used like any other table syrup. If 
made in accordance with these directions it will have a delicate 
and novel flavor, somewhat similar to that of the sugar which 
forms when apples are baked. It will be found that children 
will enjoy it on bread and butter, and that it will afford a new 
and useful flavoring adjunct or sauce for puddings or other 
desserts. 



106 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Muscadine Grape Syrup. — The process of making Muscadine 
grape syrup is very simple, and with proper care an inexperi- 
enced operator can succeed. Since the making of grape syrup is 
very similar to the methods, used in making apple syrup, it is 
unnecessary to outline the procedure in detail. 

Varieties. — The varieties having the highest natural sugar 
and lowest natural acid content usually make the most delicious 
and highest quality syrup and also yield the most syrup per 
gallon of fresh juice. The Scuppemong, Thomas, Luola, Mish, 
and other similar varieties of high quality make the best syrups. 
The James makes a syrup of fair quality, while the Flowers and 
Eden varieties make syrups which, relatively speaking, would be 
called acid and I'ough. 

Pressing. — Cleanse the various parts of the press; scald it 
so that it will swell and will not leak. So soon as each pressing is 
completed it is important to remove all pomace from the press 
and to wash with clean water all the parts that have come in 
contact with the juice. This will prevent feraientation and 
souring at the press and the giving of foreign flavors to later 
lots of juice. 

Crush the grapes and then press them cold. The free-run 
or first juice that comes from the press is more desirable for 
syrup making than that which is secured under pressure. This 
is principally due to the fact that the free-run juice is higher 
in sugar content and lower in acid content than the pressed 
juice. When pressure is applied the juice flows freely at first 
and then at a gradually slower and slower rate for many hours. 
The pomace should never be allowed to stand in the press longer 
than five or six hours. For many reasons it has been found 
desirable to press during the day, cook the juice the first time in 
the late afternoon or evening, allow it to stand in the precipitating 
jars over night, and boil it down to a syrup the next morning. 
A bushel of grapes will yield, when cold pressed, from two and 
a quarter to four gallons of fresh juice, depending upon the 
variety. Most varieties yield at least three gallons. On this 
basis, condensing the juice to one-ninth of its volume, which has 



FRUIT JUICES 



107 



been found to give a syrup of satisfying consistency, one bushel 
of grapes, cold pressed, should yield one and one-third quarts 
of syrup. Heated grapes yield more juice tihan cold-pressed 
grapes, but make a syrup of inferior quality. 

Heating. — Heat the juice and strain it. To every six quarts 
of fresh Muscadine juice stir in two ounces of powdered calcium 
carbonate (carbonate of lime) to remove the acids. Boil for 
six or eight minutes as with apple syrup, and pour hot into 
sterilized glass jars or pitchers. Allow the liquid to stand over 
night. Pour off the clear portion into a cooking vessel, being 




Fig. 77. — Utensils used iu making Muscadine syrup. 

culture.) 



(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agri- 



careful not to pour off any of the sediment. Add one-sixth 
of a level teaspoonful of calcium carbonate for each six quarts 
of fresh grape juice which it represents. 

Complete the process by boiling down the clear liquid, being 
careful to keep the caramel forming on the inside of the pan 
wiped off with a wet cloth so that scorched caramel will not fall 
into the syimp and cause it to have a burned flavor. Boil the 
liquid, being careful not to allow it to burn when it is nearly 



108 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

done. Skim during the cooking process and continue the cooking 
as for apple syrup. 

Cooling. — When the syrup has reached the proper thickness, 
pour it off into the jars, cover, and place them in a hot- water 
bath or in a tireless cooker where they will cool very slowly. 
Slow cooling is important in order to obtain a clear syrup. 

When the syrup has cooled to room temperature it can be 
bottled. 

Bottling. — Pour off the clear syrup, leaving behind the sedi- 
ment, which is not easily disturbed. Bottle, sterilize, and seal at 
once (Fig. 77). 

Fruit Syrups. — Fruit syrups which are left over from can- 
ning either small or large fruits should be bottled, pasteurized, 
sealed, and stored away to be used for flavoring or making 
beverages. A delicious drink is made by adding two or three 
teaspoonfuls of fruit syrup and the juice of one-half lemon to a 
glass of cold water. They may also be used for flavoring ice- 
creams, sherbets, and other desserts. 

Such fruits as peaches, strawberries, and pineapples give 
more satisfactory results when made into syrups before bottling. 
Sugar helps to develop the flavor of these fruits. Sauces for 
sundaes and for flavoring are often made from red cherries, 
plums, currants, red and black raspberries, strawberries, black- 
berries, apricots, peaches, rhubarb, pineapples, and lemons. A 
good proportion to use for berries and small fruits is two cup- 
fuls sugar to eaoli quart of juice. 

For each quart grated fresli pineapple allow two pounds sugar to one 
cupful of water. 

For each pound apricots, fresh fruit, allow one pound sugar to one pint 
of water. 

For each two pounds peaches, fresh fruit, allow one pound sugar to 
one cupful of water. 

For each quart rhubarb juice allow two pounds sugar. 

For each cupful lemon juice, one tablespoonful of grated rind, allow one 
pound of sugar to one cupful of water. 

General Method of Preparing Vinegar. — ^ Cider vinegar is fre- 
quently made in the country home, but often when this product 



FRUIT JUICES 109 

is put on the market it is fomid to fall short in one require- 
ment or another. The need of a careful study of this process 
is necessary. The expense attached to vinegar production is 
small, since Nature does most of the work. Cider vinegrar can 
be utilized in the home or sold as one of the by-products that in- 
crease the income of the farm. 

MAKING CIDER VINEGAR AT HOME " 

Why Study Was Needed. — The making of cider vinegar is a 
familiar cperatioii in almost every farm home (Fig. 78). The 
final product is a necessity on every table, the small apples 
from which it is usually made are of practically no value for 
other purposes, the labor and expense of picking them up and 
pressing them are slight, and from the time the cider is in the 
barrel Nature does the work. Thus the process appears a simple 
one, easy to start, and self-operated to its termination in a salable 
commodity; so that the work-burdened farmer, with several 
barrels of cider in his cellar, may, in his few moments of leisure, 
think with pleasure of this farm operation which will bring him 
profit without further outlay of strength or money. 

Yet vinegar is a food product and, as such, has come under 
the eye of state law, which says that to be legally salable the 
finished goods must meet certain requirements. Cider vinegar 
must contain 4.5 per cent of acetic acid and 2 per cent of cider 
vinegar solids before it can be lawfully sold, and frequently 
farmers who have made vinegar from pure apple juice only, and 
who have stored this under what they believe to be proper con- 
ditions for the proper length of time, find that their product 
falls short in one requirement or the other. Thus, without 
fraudulent intent or attempt at adulteration or dilution, the 
homemade vinegar falls under suspicion. Complaints of this 
condition reached the New York station in considerable number 
some years ago, and in an effort to find the cause or causes of the 
difficulty an extensive investigation of the subject has been made. 

' These directions are quoted from N. Y. State Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin No. 258, written by F. H. Hall. 



110 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Cider has been pressed during different years and from different 
varieties of apples, and has been stored under varied conditions, 
with and without additions of yeast, "mother" or additional 
malic (apple) acid. In all, thirty-six experiments have been 
carried through periods of time varying from forty-four months 
to seven years. Each sample of cider was analyzed monthly for 
ten months and at two-month or three-month intervals after that 
time, attention being paid to seven constituents in most of the 
analyses; so that a great amount of data has been collected, of 
much chemical interest and practical value. 

Simple Yet Complex. — As seen by the farmer, vinegar mak- 
ing is a simple process; to the chemist, though less intricate than 
many other chemical transformations, it is complex ; while to the 
biologist the various steps in the change of sugar in the fresh 
apple juice to the acetic acid of vinegar are manifestations of 
very complex life activities of many species of organisms, divided 
into two great groups, yeasts and bacteria, each group perform- 
ing a specific function in the change. There may also come into 
action, under certain unfavorable conditions, other bacteria which 
hinder the useful transformations, or which destroy tlie prod- 
ucts desired and thus lower the quality of the vinegar. This 
interplay of living organisms, sometimes for good, sometimes for 
ill, has not been studied in all its details, and has been consid- 
ered, in this investigation, only as results were produced, the 
chemical transformations alone being considered. 

Chemistry of Vinegar Making. — In a general way these 
transformations are two : Sugar, the ordinary cane-sugar and 
other forms known as invert sugars (dextrose and lajvulose), in 
the sweet cider, is first changed into alcohol through the fermen- 
tative action of one group of organisms ; then the alcohol, by the 
action of a second group of organisms, is changed to acetic acid. 

Chemically considered, each molecule of sugar consists of six 
atoms of carbon, twelve atoms of hydrogen, and six atoms of 
oxygen. When this molecule of sugar is acted upon by the proper 
ferments, it passes through a series of chemical changes which 
may be said to result, finally, in splitting it up into two molecules 
of alcohol, each containing two atoms of carbon, six of hydro- 



FRUIT JUICES 111 

gen, and one of oxygen, and two molecules of carbon dioxide gas, 
each containing one atom of carbon and two of oxygen. This 
may be expressed in the form of an equation : 

Sugar Alcohol Carbon dioxide 

CeHijOg = 2C2H6O + 2CO2 

Theoretically, we should be able to get from 100 parts of 
sugar by weight about 51 parts of alcohol and 49 parts of carbon 
dioxide ; but because of evaporation and certain minor chemical 
changes we can get in practice only about 45 to 47 parts of alco- 
hol or less. 

After the alcohol is formed, the organisms which act upon 
it begin the transformation to acetic acid. In this process oxy- 
gen is taken from the air. The result may be similarly repre- 
sented by an equation : 



Alcohol 


Oxygen 


Acetic acid 




Water 


C6H12O 


+ O2 = 


= C2H4O2 


+ 


H2O 



Theoretically, again, we should obtain from 100 parts of 
alcohol about 130 parts of acetic acid, but we usually get less 
than 120 parts. So, starting with 100 parts of sugar in the 
apple juice, we may get under favorable conditions from 50 to 
55 parts of acetic acid ; therefore to have vinegar with 4.5 per 
cent of acetic acid we must have juice containing not less than 
8.5 per cent of sugar. 

Sugar in Apples. — This percentage, however, is found in 
practically all ripe, sound apples, although in a record of about 
100 analyses of 80 varieties of American-grown apples, made at 
N. Y. station, in Washington, D. C, in Pennsylvania, and in Vir- 
ginia, five samples, of as many different varieties, were too low 
in sugar to produce vinegar of the required acidity. The sugar 
in apples reaches its maximum in ripe fruit, being low both in 
those that are green and those that are over-ripe. It averaged, in 
the apples used in the tests at N. Y. station, 13% per cent, and 
varied less than 2 per cent either above or below the average. 
A somewhat surprising fact to those not familiar with the chem- 
istry of the subject is that "sweet" apples do not owe their 
sweetness to their large' percentage of sugar, but to the small 



112 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

amount of malic acid they contain. For example, the sample of 
Red Astrachan juice contained 10.16 per cent of sugar and 1.15 
per cent of malic acid; while Tolman Sweet and Sweet Bough 
contain about the same amount of sugar, but only 0.10 to 0.20 
per cent of malic acid. 

Alcoholic Fermentation. — Starting, then, with juice contain- 
ing sufficient sugar, what are the conditions which will best 
promote the changes to alcohol and to vinegar and prevent loss? 
The sugar must first be acted upon by the enzymes, or ferments, 
which are produced by yeast plants. The yeast germs are usu- 
ally present everywhere, so that they pass from the surface of 
the apples into the juice as it is pressed out, or fall into the 
cider from the air. It has sometimes been held unwise to wash 
apples before pressing them, for fear of carrying away the neces- 
sary yeast germs; but the apples used in all the station tests 
were washed without apparent interference with alcoholic fer- 
mentation. If apples have become dirty it is certainly best to 
wash them, as otherwise there is danger of introducing bacteria 
that interfere with proper fermentation. In ordinary cellar 
temperature, most of the sugar is changed into alcohol in five or 
six months, the change being slow during the first month, but 
quite rapid during the second, third, and fourth months. The 
process may be greatly hastened by storing in rooms warmer 
than cellars usually are during the fall and winter months. By 
placing bottles of vinegar in rooms of different temperature, 
running from 55° to 85° Farheuheit it was found that at 55° 
only 21/4 per cent of alcohol was fonned in three months ; at 60° 
and 65° Fahrenheit, more than 4I/2 per cent; and at 70° and 
85° Fahrenheit, about 6I/. per cent was formed in the same 
time. At higher temperatures than this, evaporation of the 
alcohol would be liable to cause loss. 

The addition of yeast also hastens alcohol formation, so that 
at a temperature of 55° Fahrenheit cider with yeast added gave 
61/4 per cent of alcohol, and at 70° Fahrenheit, with yeast, 7i^ 
per cent, both in one month. The use of any form of commercial 
yeast, if sufficiently fresh, will probably be found to give good 
results. 



• FRUIT JUICES 113 

Acetic Fermentation. — After the yeast fermentation has been 
completed the acetic-acid forming bacteria begin to attack the 
alcohol and produce acetic acid. This process is ordinarily very 
slow for about three months after the sugar has all been changed 
to alcohol (that is, during the eighth, ninth, and tenth months 
of cellar storage), but advances rapidly from the tenth to the 
fourteenth month and is practically completed in two years. 
This process also moves more rapidly, when once well started, at 
higher temperatures ; but differences of temperature appear to 
have little effect during the three months after the sugar has 
disappeared. Beginning with the tenth month of storage, how- 
ever, and up to the end of two and one-half years, nearly twice 
as great a percentage of acetic acid was produced where the 
temperature varied from 50° to 90° Fahrenheit as where it was 
from 45° to 65° Fahrenheit. The percentage of acid formed at 
lower temperatures never became as great as at higher tempera- 
tures, though part of the apparent increase in the warm room 
was due to evaporation of the water. The best results were 
secured at temperatures of 65° to 70° Fahrenheit. 

It is the ordinary practice to add vinegar, especially vine- 
gar containing "mother," to the barrels in which vinegar is 
making; and the investigation proved the practice a most excel- 
lent one, as the acetic fermentation was more rapid and more 
complete in every case where this form of inoculation or "seed- 
ing" was used. This addition of "mother" is comparable to 
the addition of a "starter" in souring milk, for the "mother" 
is produced by the growth of the acetic bacteria in the presence 
of air and contains large numbers of these bacteria. 

It appears to be of advantage in some cases to draw off the 
clear portion of the cider after alcoholic fermentation has been 
completed, leaving the dregs; and to continue the process in 
new, clean barrels or to wash out the settlings and return the 
clear liquid to the barrels. This proved of considerable advan- 
tage in the case of vinegars stored at low temperatures, but of 
less utility when the vinegar was stored at higher temperatures 
where the acetic fermentation proceeded rapidly. Possibly with 
cider made from uncleaned apples and carelessly strained juice 
8 



114 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVINC 

the results alonij: this line would be inoi'e striking; for the liability 
to contamination with undesirable germs would be greater in 
such cases. 

Loss of Acetic Acid. — In both alcoholic fermentation and 
acetic fermentation the air should have free access, especially in 
the latter; for, as can be seen by the equation given to explain 
the process, oxygen must be added to alcohol to make the acetic 
acid, and this must come largely from the air. On this account 
the barrels should not be filled more than two-thii-ds or three- 
fourths full with the apple juice or with the '"hard" cider. But 
when the acetic fermentation has ceased to be active and the 
amount of acetic acid is safely above 41/^ per cent the vinegar 
should be drawn from the barrels and strained, the barrels 
cleansed, the vinegar returned, filling the barrels full, and the 
bung driven in tight. 

Unless this is done, destructive fermentation may begin and 
the acetic acid decrease instead of increasing. In several experi- 
ments where the vinegar v^^as held in loosely stoppered casks or 
bottles it lost all or nearly all its acid, and in some cases actually 
became alkaline in reaction. This destructive fermentation may 
be due to new species of bacteria introduced, or even in some 
eases to the same acetic acid-forming species which, when the 
alcohol is exhausted, attack the acetic acid itself. 

As showing how complex may be the processes passing in 
vinegar, the case may be cited of four one-quart bottles of the 
same juice stored under the same general conditions. At the 
end of five years bottles A and B contained 5.74 and 5.44 per 
cent, respectively, of acetic acid, bottle C 2.10 per cent, and 
bottle D gave an alkaline reaction. Bottles A and C contained 
nearly three times and bottle B two and one-half times as much 
solids as bottle D. 

Malic Acid. — The acid of fresh apple juice is not the acid of 
vinegar, but a fixed acid called malic acid. This has certain 
chemical characteristics which make it quite easily recognizable ; 
,and so its presence in vinegar has been considered an index to 
determine whether the vinegar was or was not truly vinegar from 
apples. But these investigations have proved that this acid dis- 



FRUIT JUICES 115 

appears quite rapidly from vinegar, so that in twenty-four 
months it had shrunk from an average of 0.55 per cent to 0.02 
per cent ; while in some older vinegars it had disappeared en- 
tirely. The relation of malic acid to cider vinegar is being further 
studied. 

Legal Standard. — The legal standard of the state for acid, 4i/2 
per cent of acetic acid, has been upheld fully by these results; 
for apple juice from good ripe apples, properly managed in 
fermentation, should and does easily give 4i/2 per cent of acetic 
acid within two years at cellar temperatures and in less time 
at higher temperatures. 

Concerning solids, the wisdom of the standard is not quite so 
clear. In several experiments made in this investigation, vine- 
gars made from pure apple juice and well above the limit in acid 
contain less than two per cent of solids. 

Conditions Producing Poor Vinegar. — Among the conditions 
which may produce vinegar below standard are these: (1) The 
juice may be poor to start with because made from varieties of 
apples low in sugar, from green apples or from over-ripe or de- 
cayed apples; or the juice may be watered either directly or by 
watering the pomace and pressing a second time. (2) The fer- 
mentation processes may be delayed or disturbed by using dirty 
fruit or unclean barrels, thus affording entrance to undesirable 
organisms and causing the wrong kind of fermentation ; the tem- 
perature may be too low to insure the necessary activity of favor- 
able organisms; or air may be excluded by filling the barrels 
too full or putting the bung in too tight so that the bacteria can- 
not live and work. (3) The acetic acid may disappear after its 
formation, destructive fermentation being encouraged by leaving 
the bung-hole of the barrel open or the barrel only partially full. 

To Make Good Vinegar. — Briefly summarized, the method to 
be employed for the manufacture of good vinegar at home, with- 
out the use of generators, is this : Use sound, ripe apples, picked 
or picked up before they have become dirty, if possible, other- 
wise washed. Observe the ordinary precautions to secure clean- 
liness in grinding and pressing, and discard all juice from second 
pressings. If possible, let the juice stand in some large recep- 



116 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



tacle for a few days to settle, then draw off the clear portion into 
well-cleaned barrels which have been treated with steam or boil- 
ing water, filling them only two-thirds or three-fourths full. 
Leave the bung out, but put in a loose plug of cotton to decrease 
evaporation and to prevent the entrance of dirt. If these barrels 
are stored in ordinary cellars, where the temperature does not go 
below 50° or 45° Fahrenheit, the alcoholic fermentation will be 
complete in about six months; but by having the storage room 
at a temperature of 65° or 70° the time can be considerably 
shortened, and the addition of compressed yeast or its equivalent 
at the rate of one cake to five gallons of juice may reduce the 
time to three months or less. Use a little water to thoroughly 
disintegrate the yeast cake before adding ib to the juice. The tem- 
perature should not go above 70° for any length of time, to avoid 
loss of the alcohol by evaporation. 




Fig. 78. — Making vinegar on the farm. 

After the sugar has all disappeared from the juice (that is, 
when the cider has entirely ceased "working" as revealed by 
the absence of gas bubbles), draw off the clear portion of the 
cider, rinse out the barrel, replace the liquid and add two to four 
quarts of good vinegar containing some "mother," and place at 
a temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. The acetic fermenta- 



FRUIT JUICES 117 

tion may be complete in three months or may take eighteen 
months, according to the conditions under which it is carried on ; 
or if stored in cool cellars may take two years or more. If the 
alcoholic fermentation be carried on in the cool cellar and the 
barrel be then taken to a warmer place, as outdoors during the 
summer, the time of vinegar formation may be reduced from 
that given above to fifteen or eighteen months. Where the alco- 
holic fermentation is hastened by warm temperature storage and 
fhe use of yeast and the acetic fermentation favored by warmth 
and a good vinegar "start," it is possible to produce good 
merchantable vinegar in casks in six or twelve months. 

When the acetic fermentation has gone far enough to produce 
4.5 to 5 per cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be made as full 
as possible and tightly corked in order to prevent destructive 
changes apd consequent deterioration of the vinegar. 

RECIPES 

Bottling Juice of Grape Fruit.^ — Bring the grape-fruit juice 
to the boiling-point in a porcelain-lined or enamelled kettle, pour 
it while still hot into sterilized bottles, and seal hermetically. 
The juice when so handled will keep indefinitely, and provides a 
base for " grapef ruitade " or other acid beverages having the 
characteristic acid, somewhat bitter, flavor of the fruit. Experi- 
ments show, however, that it is highly important that the bottle 
be completely filled, so that no layer of air will be left between 
the top of the juice and the cork or seal. When air in any amount 
comes in contact with the top of the sterilized juice it will cause 
the juice to change its color. In handling the juice it is particu- 
larly important that it be kept from coming into contact with 
iron or other metals easily acted upon by fruit acids. 

The investigators found also that it was possible to freeze the 
grape-fruit juice into solid ice and then, by whirling the ice in a 
centrifugal machine, to take out a larger part of the water and 
leave the solids and flavoring matter of the fruit. This freezing 
and concentrating of the juice greatly reduces the bulk and 

*This recipe was prepared by the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



118 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

makes a product which can be sterilized by heating and kept 
indefinitely. 

Clarifying Juice. — Those who wish to make a clear juice may 
filter the grape-fruit juice before it is heated by adding to it 
from two to three per cent (about three ounces avoirdupois to the 
gallon) of infusorial earth well washed with hot water. The 
mixture is then forced through a non-metallic filter-press and the 
clear juice reheated and boiled. With the freezing process, the 
juice is filtered after concentration, about twice the amount of 
infusorial earth being used per gallon of concentrate. 

The chemists, in connection with this bottling of grape-fruit 
juice, notify the public that the same process is not suitable for 
bottling the juice of oranges and lemons, which will not retain 
their flavor if handled in this way. 

While as yet, so far as known, there is no commercial market 
for sterilized grape-fruit juice, it is believed that many persons 
will find this juice, with the addition of water and sugar, a 
pleasant variation from lemonade or limeade. Those who like 
grape-fruit should find the beverage inviting. The method is so 
simple that those in regions where grape-fruit are cheap and 
plentiful can prepare tliis product on a small scale with ordi- 
nary household appliances. 

Bottling Grape Juice. — Juice compressed from the various 
cultivated grapes can be bottled. Recipes follow^ for leading 
Southern and Northern varieties. 

Scuppernong Grape Juice. — After washing the grapes, crush 
while heating them. Fruit juice will flow more readily when the 
fruit is heated, but the pulp should not be allowed to boil. 
When the pulp is thoroughly soft, strain through a double cheese- 
cloth and squeeze as much juice through it as possible, then strain 
the juice through a flannel cloth without squeezing. This will 
give a clear juice. After this heat the juice to 180° Fahrenheit, 
skim and strain into sterilized bottles, place the corks in loosely, 
place the bottles on a rack in the water-bath, and pasteurize for 
fifteen minutes at a temperature of 180° Fahrenheit. Pound 
the cork in tightly, dip the top of the bottle into sealing wax, and 
store away in a dark, dry place. If this juice is to be used for a 



FRUIT JUICES 119 

beverage and sugar is desired, it may 1)C sweetened to taste 
before heating and pouring- into the bottles. 

If the museadine grape juice is to be used for a beverage and 
not for "jelly stock" the cold-press method is the simplest and 
quickest where only the "free-run juice" is bottled, and it yields 
brilliant, transparent juices which are superior in flavor and 
aroma to the dark, cloudy juice obtained from the hot-press 
method. The clear, sparkling grape juice is a delightful, refresh- 
ing drink for summer use. 

Unfermented Concord or Niagara Grape Juice. — To every 
five pounds of Concord or Niagara grapes use one pint of water. 
Crush grapes, add water, bring to boil, and strain through jelly- 
bag. Add one-half cupful of granulated sugar to every quart 
of juice. Bring just to a boil and pour into sterilized bottles, 
pasteurize, and seal air-tight. 

Berry shrub may be made of strawberries, raspberries, or 
dewberries. Select sound fruit, wash, measure, and place in a 
sto2ie jar. For every four quarts of berries use one quart of vine- 
gar. Cover the jar by tying a cheesecloth over it. Stir the berries 
daily for three or four days. If the weather is very warm do not 
let it stand over three days. Strain without squeezing and put 
into kettle, allowing one pound of sugar to each pint of liquid. 
Boil slowly for five minutes, bottle, cork, and seal. Dilute with 
cold water for serving. 

WAYS TO USE FRUIT JUICES 

Grape Cup. — To three pints of grape juice add four whole 
cloves, one cupful of sugar, the juice of four oranges with one- 
half grated orange rind and a few leaves of lemon verbena or 
mint. Bring to boiling-point, cool, and let stand to ripen for two 
or three hours. When ready to use, stir in the stififly beaten whites 
of three eggs, a quart of unfermented grape juice, and a pint of 
water, and serve in tumblers with ice. 

Fruit Cup. — Two tablespoonfuls of green tea, two quarts of 
boiling water, two eupfuls of sugar, juice of one orange, one cup- 
ful of currant juice, juice of two lemons. Pour water over tea, 
let stand five minutes, then strain over the sugar ; add lemon and 
orange juices, cool, and let ripen in a cool place for six hours. 



120 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

When ready to serve, add the currant juice, pour over cracked 
ice in deep glasses, garnishing each serving with a small, old- 
fashioned yellow rose or a sprig of mint. If desired, the cracked 
ice may be omitted, the punch being poured over raspberry ice 
or peach or pineapple sherbet instead. 

Fruit Punch. — One quart of raspberry juice, one quart of 
currant juice, three lemons, one pineapple, two quarts of cold 
water, three oranges. Sweeten to taste. 

Cherry Punch. — Take one quart of cherry juice and add a few 
crushed cherries. To one and one-half pints of hot juice and 
pulp add three-quarters of a pound of sugar, one cupful of 
water, juice of one lemon. When sugar dissolves, cool the mix- 
ture and freeze. When half frozen, add beaten white of one egg 
and one ounce of crushed cherries. 

Grape Punch. — Juice of two lemons, juice of one orange, one 
pint of grape juice, one quart of water, one cupful of sugar, one 
cupful of shredded canned pineapple or one pint of cherries. 
Combine and let stand several hours to ripen before serving. 

Orange Ice. — The juice of six oranges and four lemons, five 
cupfuls of sugar, and the grated rinds of two oranges. Pour boil- 
ing water over other oranges and lemon rinds. Let stand fifteen 
minutes and strain. Pour the fiavored water over the other in- 
gredients, and add enough cold water to make one gallon. Freeze 
and serve in orange glasses or orange skins. 

Strawberry Ice. — Two cupfuls of water, three-quarters of a 
cupful of sugar. Boil from five to ten minutes. Add one cupful of 
strawberry juice, one-half or one tablespoonful of lemon juice, 
one or two sheets of gelatin. Soak gelatin in little water. Bring 
sugar and water to boil. Pour over gelatin. Stir until dissolved 
and strain into strawberry juice. Freeze. 

Raspberry Ice. — One quart of raspberry juice, one quart of 
water, three tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, three and one-quarter 
cupfuls of sugar. Boil sugar and water for twenty minutes ; cool, 
add berry juice and lemon juice, and freeze in three parts ice to 
one part salt. For a rose-colored ice use only the red berries, but 
for a rich wine color use part or all black raspberries. 

Raspberry Float. — Take one-half cupful of red raspberry 



FRUIT JUICES 131 

juice and one cupful of fruit. Mix in gradually two tablespoon- 
fuls of powdered sugar. Beat the whites of two eggs until stiff 
and fold into them the sweetened raspberries. 

Blackberry Flummery. — Boil one quart of blackberry juice. 
Rub together four tablespoonfuls of corn-starch and four tea- 
spoonfuls of sugar, add to fruit juice, and boil for ten minutes. 
Strain, cool, and serve with cream or custard. 

Grape Frappe. — One pint of grape juice and one pint of 
water. Heat to boiling-point and strain through cheesecloth. 
Add juice of two lemons and one-half cupful of sugar. Strain 
and freeze. 

Fruit Nectar. — One quart of hot water, one pint of grape- 
fruitade, one egg-white, one-half cupful of finely chopped mint 
leaves, two cupfuls of sugar, four oranges, four lemons. Boil 
the sugar and water for ten minutes. Cool, add the fruit juice, 
and freeze in three parts ice to one part salt. When half frozen, 
add the egg-white well beaten. Pack in ice and salt two or three 
hours to ripen. When ready to serve, half fill tall glasses with 
the ice and pour over the grapefruitade, which should be freshly 
opened. Scatter finely chopped, fresh, or candied mint leaves 
over each serving. 

Apollinaris Tea. — Two quarts of apollinaris water, one gallon 
of strong tea, three dozen lemons, one-half dozen oranges cut in 
small pieces with peelings, one quart of cherry juice, one quart 
of grape juice ; sweeten to taste. Serve with crushed ice in punch- 
bowl. This makes enough for one hundred people. 

QUESTIONS 

1. For what purposes may bottled fruit juices be used in the home? 

2. At what point should care begin in our endeavor to secure a good bot- 

tled fruit juice? 

3. Why cannot green fruit or over-ripe fruit be used in making an ex- 

cellent fruit juice? 

4. Why would bruising the fruit in packing or by careless washing produce 

an inferior product? 

5. What is meant by the " free-run juioe" of the grape? What method is 

used in obtaining it? For what purpose is it used? How does free- 
run juice differ from the total juice? 

6. What advantage has the juice obtained by the hot process over that ob- 

tained by the cold process? 



132 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

7. Why is the hot process necessary when the juice is to l>e used in jelly 

making? 

8. How may the color and flavor be retained when using the hot process? 

9. Why should fruit juices not be boiled? How may they be reheated witli- 

ont danger of boiling? 

10. What precautions are necessary in handling the filtered juice that the 

product may be as clear as possible? 

11. What is the difference between pasteurization and sterilization? 

12. What precaution should be taken to prevent the corks blowing out during 

the pasteurization? 

13. What fact makes necessary the false bottom in all canners and pas- 

teurizers ? 

14. What is meant by the term '• simmer "? How can you tell when water 

is simmering? 

15. Why is it necessary to cover the cork and one inch of the bottle with 

wax? 

16. Why is it necessary to store fruit juices in a dark place? 

17. How will economy determine the size of the bottle prepared for home 

use? 

18. Under what conditions would the making of apple syrup be economical 

on the farm ? 

19. Give an outline of the method for making grape syrup, including under 

each step the special care needed that the final product may reach the 
standard desired. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. " Creole Cook Book, 1914. Published by the Picayune, New Orleans, La. 

By mail, $1.25. 

2. Bearing, Charles T., United States Department of Agriculture, Farm- 

ers' Bulletin 758, "Muscadine Grape Syrup," 1916. "Home Uses of 
Muscadine Grapes," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 859. Can be se- 
cured from the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. Farmer, Fannie Meuritt, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907. 

Published by Little. Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80. 

4. Gore, H.. C, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of 

Cheminstry, " Studies on Fruit Juices," Bulletin No. 241, June, 1915. 
Can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

5. Haix, F. H., and Van Slyke, L. L., New York Agricultural Experiment 

Station, " Making Cider Vinegar at Home," Bulletin No. 258, De- 
cember, 1904. New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, 
N. Y. 

6. HusEMANN, George C, United States Department of Agriculture, Farm- 

ers' Bulletin No. 644, " Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape 
Juice," April, 1915. Can be secured from the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture, Washington, D. C. 



FRUIT JUICES 123 

7. Keen, Adelaide, " Witli a Sauce Pan Over the Sea," 11)02. Published 

by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, j\Iass. $1.50. 

8. Smith, Fraxces Lowe, " Recipes and Menus for Fifty," 1913. Pub- 

lislied by Whitconib & Barrows, Boston, ]\Iass. $1.50. 

9. United States Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Chemistry, " Apple 

Syrup and Concentrated Cider '" ; " New Products for Utilizing Sur- 
plus and Cull Apples," by H. C. Gore, Yearbook Separate 039, from 
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1914. Can be pur- 
chased from the Superintendent of Dociunents, rJovcnnnent Printing 
Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

10. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Do- 

mestic Commerce, " Pineapple Canning Industry of the World." 

11. Van Slyke, L. L., "Chemistry of Homemade Cider Vinegar," New 

York Experiment Station Bulletin No. 258. Geneva, New York. 

12. Calvin, H. W., and Leyford, C. A., "The Preparation and Preservation 

of Vegetables," Bulletin No. 47, Department of Interior, Bureau of 
Education, 1918, Washington, D. C. 

13. Cruess, W. v.. " Farm and Home Canning," Circular No. 158, also 

"Canning Fruits and Vegetables," Circular No. 1, published by Uni- 
versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. 

14. BiOLETTi, Frederic T., and Cruess, W. V., " Fruit Juices," University 

of California, Berkeley, Cal. 



CHAPTER IX 
FRUITS FOR CANNING 

Apples. — Only sound, smooth, medium-sized cooking apples 
should be canned. The late fall and winter varieties are usually 
slightly acid, and they retain their flavor better than do the sweet 
varieties. Apples shrink more in canning than most fruits, and 
for this reason they should be blanched for one minute, then 
plunged into a cold bath, packed, and covered with a syrup of 10 
to 15 degrees density (see p. 132). 

Process quart jars ten minutes. Exhaust No. 3 cans two min- 
utes and process eight minutes at boiling temperature (212° 
Fahrenheit) in water-bath. 

Apple Sauce. — Peel, core, and steam the apples until soft, run 
through colander, return to the fire and heat thoroughly, pack 
hot into cans or jars, and seal at once. Process ten minutes at 
212° Fahrenheit in a hot-water bath. 

Berries. — For dewberries, blackberries, raspberries, and 
Logan berries, practically the same methods of canning may be 
used. The condition of the fruit will have much to do with the 
quality of the product. The berries should be gathered in shal- 
low trays or baskets and not in deep vessels which allow them to 
be bruised and crushed. They should be uniformly ripe, sound, 
and as large as possible. It is necessary to can all varieties of 
berries in glass or else to put them in enamel-lined cans, be- 
cause if canned in ordinary tin cans the berries will lose both 
color and flavor very quickly, and be unfit for use or for sale. 

The flavor of canned berries will be finer if sugar is used in 
canning. It is best to make this into a syrup. The use of berry 
juice instead of water in this syrup will give a richer color and 
flavor. For fine berries, use a syrup of 30 degrees density (about 
three and one-half pounds of sugar to one gallon of berry juice or 
water). 

After the berries have been carefully sorted and lightly washed 
124 



FRUITS FOR CANNING 125 

by placing in colander and pouring water over them (instead 
of putting into a pan of water) , pack as closely as possible with- 
out crushing. This can be done better by putting a few berries in 
the jar or can, pressing them gently into place, and proceeding 
layer by layer, than by nearly filling the jar loosely and then try- 
ing to press them down. 

Fill jars full of fruit and cover with cooled syrup. Fit the 
rubber in place and fasten the lid loosely on glass jar and then 
process pints for six minutes and quarts for twelve minutes, 
counting the time after boiling begins. When packing in tin 
cans, fill them to within one-quarter of an inch of the top, cover 
with syrup. Dry the groove around the opening with a clean 
cloth and cap. Exhaust in tin for three minutes and process No. 
2 cans for eight minutes and No. 3 cans for ten minutes. No. 
10 's should be exhausted four minutes and processed for thirty 
minutes. 

Cherries. — Cherries keep their flavor and color with difficulty 
in tin, even in enamel-lined cans. For this reason glass is prefer- 
able. The large black and sweet white cherries are usually packed 
unpitted, while the reverse is true of the acid cherries. The un- 
pitted cherries present a better appearance, and many people 
like the distinctive flavor which the retained pit gives to the 
product. When cherries are canned whole they should be 
blanched in hot water at about 180° Fahrenheit for twenty or 
thirty seconds. This will slightly soften the fruit and prevent 
splitting. Then drop cherries into a cool syrup and they will 
plump considerably^ before packing cold into jars. For sour 
cherries use a syrup of 40 degrees density, and for sweet ones 
use a 30-degree syrup (see Syrup table, p. 132). Process 
quart jars for twenty-five minutes ; exhaust No. 2 cans for two 
minutes and process for twenty minutes in a water-bath at boil- 
ing temperature (212° Fahrenheit). Both the exhausting and 
processing of cherries in quart jars are accomplished at the same 
time. 

Figs. — Figs for canning should be sound and firm (Fig. 79). 
Treat them with a soda bath as for preserving. Rinse through 
two cold-water baths, drain and cook for forty to sixty minutes in 



136 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

the syrup (two ciipfnls of su<iar, four cupfuls of water). Cool, 
pack, and cover with the syrup and process for thirty minutes 
in quart jars. Figs retain a better color and flavor when canned 
in enamel-lined cans than they will if packed in plain tin cans. 

Gooseberries. — Because of extreme acidity green gooseberries 
can be safely canned without processing. The berries are picked 
when nearly full grown, but green. Stem, wash, pack into jars, 
cover with fresh cold water, and allow the jars to stand for ten 
minutes. Drain off the water and again fill to overflowing with 
fresh cold water and seal, using sterilized rubbers and lids. 
Gooseberries canned in this way are used for pies. 

Rhubarb may be canned in the same manner as gooseberries. 

Peaches. — Sort the fruit, using firm, sound, uniform peaches 
for cainiing, and putting aside the soft, broken ones for jam. A 
few very large peaches are sometimes canned whole in a heavy 
syrup and are called ]\Ielba peaches. 

Firm, perfect peaches may be lye peeled, but if very ripe the 
fruit is made too soft by this process. The lye method of peeling 
is superseding the former methods of peeling by hand or by 
boiling water. The objections to this method were no doubt due in 
some measure to improper usage. Have ready a boiling lye solu- 
tion (four tablespoonfuls of concentrated lye to one gallon of 
water). Drop the peaches into this for about twenty to thirty 
seconds, lift them out, and drop into clear boiling water for a 
like period. After this place them into a cold bath, when the skins 
will come off easily. Cut them into halves, remove the seeds, 
and immerse fruit in a hot syrup testing about 30 to 40 degrees 
with a "Brix" spindle. The percentage of solids in a liquid is 
indicated by the reading at the surface of the liquid when the 
Brix hydrometer is floated in it (pp. 131 and 132). Allow them 
to stand in this syrup until thoroughly cold, then pack, placing 
the halves in overlapping layers, the concave surface of each half 
being downward and the blossom end facing the glass. Fill each 



Note. — If the peaches are not firm, tliey may he peeled hy lowering 
them in a wire hasket or cheesecloth into boiling water until the skins slip 
easily (about one minute), remove, plunge for a minute into cold water, and 
slip off the skins (Plate I). 






03 hj 
Q2 



I* 
O 2 




FRUITS FOR CANNING 



127 




Fig. 79. — Fig i)acks. 






Fici. SO. — Attractive packs of canneil fruits: :i. Berries, b. Pears, c. Fruit salad. 



128 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



n 



<i- 



jar or can with strained syrup and paddle care- 
fully to remove air bubbles. Exhaust No. 3 cans 
three minutes, process for fifteen minutes. In 
glass, process quart jars for twenty minutes and 
half gallons for thirty-five minutes. 

Pears. — Select pears ripe, but not soft. Some- 
times whole Seckel pears are canned, but the 
Bartlett pear is preferred to other varieties for 
canning, due to its texture and flavor. Pare, 
blanch, put into a cold soda bath (one teaspoonful 
of soda to one gallon of water), drain and pack 
rapidly. When packed whole, leave stems on and 
place each layer stems up, letting the second row 
fill the spaces between the two stems, and repeat. 
If the pears are to be cut they should be pared, 
evenly divided into halves, and cored. The fruit 
must be kept submerged in water after being 
pared or it will discolor quickly. Eight or ten 
large, perfect pieces, covered with syrup, will give 
a good pack. Pack pears, cover with a syrup 
of 20 to 30 degrees density, and process quarts for 
thirty minutes ; exhaust No. 3 cans three minutes 
and process for twenty-five minutes at 212° 
Fahrenheit in a water-bath. 

Plums. — The green-gage, yellow egg, and Lom- 
bard are the varieties of plums used for can- 
ning. Only sound, uniform fruit should be 
selected ; stem, wash, grade, prick with needle to 
prevent bursting, pack as firmly as possible with- 
out crushing, cover with a syrup of 40 degrees 
density, and process quarts for fifteen minutes; 
exhaust No. 2 cans two minutes and process ten 
minutes, counting the time after the water-bath 
begins boiling. Enamel-lined cans are necessary 
when packing plums in tin. 

Olives. — The canned ripe olive has been used 
^^'^i.^j^'^?'''''"^ in this country almost exclusively as a condiment, 

hydrometer. '' 



r\ 




FRUITS FOR CANNING 



129 



owing partly to price and partly to the irregularity of the 
product. It has unusually high nutritive value and a peculiar 
pleasing taste, two elements which commend it as a food, provided 
the consumer can depend upon getting these qualities. The meth- 
ods of packing are in a more or less 
experimental stage, and improve- 
ment is constantly being made. 

The ]\Iission olive is preferred 
for canning, owing to the superior 
flavor and better texture. A recipe 
for handling olives is quoted under 
the chapter on "Pickling," p. 217. 

Fruit Macedoine. — A combina- 
tion of fruits makes an attractive 
pack in a 30- to 40-degree syrup, 
and it is a convenient product to 
have on hand, since it is ready to 
serve either as a fruit cocktail, 
salad, or dessert. Some of these 
combinations may be more easily 
obtained in one section of the 
country than another. Any light- 
colored fruits will make a pleasant 
mixture : 

(a) Green-gage plums, pears, 
and gooseberries. 

(h) Pineapples, kumquats, figs. 

( c ) Peaches, pears, and cherries. 

Very often fruits such as berries are not included in these com- 
binations, because they wovdd discolor fruits of lighter color and 
would have the tendency to lose their form (Fig. 80, c). 

Golden dressing is a pleasing addition to this mixture when 
served in any of the above-mentioned ways. 

Special Hydrometers. — In order to proceed with certainty, 
instruments called hydrometers have been devised for accurately 
measuring the density of liquids. The one used for the special 
purpose of measuring the density of sugar solutions is known as 
a saccharometer. There are three different kinds of sugar hy- 
9 




Fig. 82. — A brass cup which can be 
used in place of plass cylinder for test- 
ing density of syrup and brine. 



130 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




FKUITS I'UR CANNING 



131 



drometers used ; namely, Balling, Brix, and Baume. The readings 
are the same on the Balling and Brix instruments. Both indi- 
cate the percentage of sugar present in a solution of water. If 
the Baume is used, a table showing the percentage of sugar corre- 
sponding to the degrees Brix is necessary for these recipes. This 
hydrometer is not suitable for use in preserving, since the read- 
ings should be converted into terms of either Brix or Balling. 
The Brix instruments may be secured with a range of zero to 30 
degrees or 30 to 60 degrees graduated in tenths of a degree, and 
the Balling with a range of zero to 70 degrees graduated in 
halves of degrees (Fig. 81). This latter instrument is the one 
shown in the illustration. Its range prevents the necessity of 




Fig. 84. — Cleansing rubber rings. 

buying two spindles, and it is accurate enough for ordinary use 
in canning and preserving. For testing fruit juices in jelly 
making, an instrument with scale ranging from zero to 30 de- 
grees and graduated in tenths of degrees is used. The Balling 
scale shown in the illustration is inexpensive. 

Using the Instruments. — When placed in sufficient water to 
cover it, the spindle floats and the reading at the surface will be 
zero. If put in a heavier liquid than water, it will float, but at a 
difiPerent level. By adding solids, in the form of sugar, to water, 
the density increases and the spindle rises. In using a sac- 
charometer it is necessary to have a vessel of sufficient depth in 
M^hich to float it to make the readings. This should be very nar- 
row so as not to require a large quantity of syrup to measure its 



133 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



density. A 250-cubic centimetre glass cylinder or a brass sac- 
charometer cup is used (Fig. 82). 

Sometimes a tall, slender olive bottle will serve this purpose. 
The instruments are fragile and only accurate when used for 
testing syrups at the temperature indicated on the spindle. These 
instruments will lose their accuracy if too frequently dipped into 
very hot solutions. The spindles may be secured mercury 
weighted or weighted with shot. 

Amount of sugar used for syrup of different degrees, using a 
gallon of water as a basis to which the sugar is added : 

Sugar Syrup Table. 



Density, 


Quantitj 


of sugar 




degrees, 






Water 






Brix or 








Balling 


Pounds 


Ounces 




5 




7 


Per 1 gallon water. 


10 




14.8 


Per 1 gallon water. 


15 


1 


7.5 


Per 1 gallon water. 


20 


1 


14.75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


25 


2 


12.5 


Per 1 gallon water. 


30 


3 


9 


Per 1 gallon water. 


35 


4 


7.75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


40 


5 


8.75 


Per 1 gallon water. 


45 


6 


13 


Per 1 gallon water. 


50 


8 


5.25 


Per 1 gallon water. 


55 


10 


4 


Per 1 gallon water. 


60 


12 


8 


Per 1 gallon water. 



If a hydrjmeter is not available, see note under Syrup table, page 85. Working without 

hydrometer. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are glass or enamel-lined cans necessary for canning berries? 

2. Describe how to pack berries that the best results may be obtained. 

3. Of what should the syrup be made which is to be used in the canning of 

berries? 

4. Why may green gooseberries be safely canned without processing? 

5. Describe in detail the " lye metbod " of peeling peaelies. What are the 

advantages in using this method? When is it unwise to use it? 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



See Chapter X, page 147. 



CHAPTER X 

VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 

Brine used for packing most of the vegetables is made of 
two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water, except for 
asparagus, for which a heavier brine is used which contains four 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water. 

Seasoning. — A seasoning mixed in the proportion of one part 
of salt and two parts of sugar is used in some canned vegetables. 
Two level teaspoonfuls of this mixture should be added to each 
quart jar or No. 3 can of tomatoes, and one teaspoonful added 
to each No. 2 can. This mixture is also used for peas, lima beans, 
and corn. The flavor of these products is much superior to those 
canned without sugar and salt seasoning. 

Asparagus. — Select only young, tender asparagus for can- 
ning. It should be packed immediately to preserve it at its best. 
The stalks should be graded as to size and washed carefully to 
prevent any staining from the soil. The stalks are tied into 
bundles and blanched from three to four minutes. On account 
of the tips being more tender than the stalks, place the lower 
ends in the blanch first, allow them to stand for two or three 
minutes, and then emerge the entire bundle for one or two 
minutes longer, then plunge into cold water. The asparagus is 
again carefully graded into white and green lots and packed 
carefully, having the tips up. Fill the cans or jars with brine 
(four ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process inter- 
mittently for one hour on each of three successive days in a hot- 
water bath; or in a steam canner for thirty minutes at a 
temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under ten-pound steam pressure. 
Asparagus which has been allowed to stand over night has lost 
much in color and flavor ; it should be canned immediately after 
cutting. 

Artichokes. — A very small amount of Burr Artichoke is 
packed in this countiy. The domestic artichokes have a thicker 
"biscuit" on the base of the leaves than the imported. 

133 



134 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Select burr heads uniform in size, remove the larger outer 
leaves and tie the others together, then blanch for five minutes, 
pack into jars and cover with brine (two and one-half ounces of 
salt to one gallon of water). Process pint jars and No. 2 cans 
in boiling-water bath for one hour. Sometimes just the hearts, or 
"biscuits" as they are often called, are packed. The base of the 
flower should be one to one and one-half inches in diameter and 
half an inch thick when the leaves are removed. The vegetable 
is blanched and dipped into a cold bath before being trimmed. 
They are then packed into the jars and covered with brine and 
processed in the same manner as the whole heads. 

This vegetable is considered a delicacy. It is used almost ex- 
clusively in the hotel trade. One difficulty in packing this vege- 
table is that it turns dark while packing and becomes unattrac- 
tive in appearance, though the flavor may be unchanged. 

String Beans. — The green "Refugee" and "Stringless Green 
Pod" are good varieties for canning. Beans should be picked 
while still young and tender and should be canned very fresh. 
When the beans within the pods have grown to any size canning 
is more difficult and the finished product is poor. The beans 
should be graded according to thickness, and only small, tender 
l)eans should be used for canning. String the beans and cut 
them into two-inch lengtlis ; cutting diagonally, or "on the bias," 
gives an attractive product. Blaneli for three to five minutes in 
a soda bath (one teaspoonful of soda to one gallon of water), 
plunge into a cold salt bath (one tablespoonful of salt to one quart 
of water) for twenty to thirty seconds. This treatment will assist 
in preserving the green color, and the finished product will be 
more attractive. Drain well and pack quickly. The beans may 
be packed in log-cabin fashion in square jars. If the beans 
are to be packed whole, they should be cut into even lengths, 
packed in the jars, covered with brine (two and one-half ounces 
of salt to one gallon of water) , and processed in the hot-water bath 
intermittently; or they may be treated in a steam canner for 
forty-five minutes at a temperature of 240° Fahrenheit, under 
ten pounds steam pressure, which will be sufficient to sterilize 
beans in quart jars and No. 2 cans. 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 135 

Wax Beans. — The wax beans are handled in the same way as 
the string- beans. Sometimes the seasoning of sugar and salt is 
added to this product when packing. Exhaust No. 2 cans three 
minutes and process intermittently. 

Lima Beans. — There are two varieties of lima beans — the 
vine or pole variety and the bush variety. The first named is 
used for drying and the last for canning green. This vegetable 
should be gathered v/heu the beans are in prime condition and 
sorted carefully. The very large beans, that look starchy and 
have the appearance of soaked beans, are often canned for succo- 
tash in the section of the country where corn and beans mature 
at the same time. After blanching the beans, fill the cans, add 
brine (two and one-half ounces of salt to one gallon of water), 
exhaust and process in the same manner as for string beans. 

Baby Beets. — Beets used for canning should be of uniform 
deep-red color throughout. The best variety of beets for canning 
is the "Detroit." From a standpoint of quality, only young, 
tender beets should be canned. Sort, putting uniform sizes to- 
gether, steam for about twenty minutes, or boil until three- 
fourths cooked, to loosen the skins. Do not allow cold water to 
touch the beets after they have been cooked, as it sometimes 
causes them to lose color. Peel and pack whole those beets which 
average one inch in diameter ; those above two inches are cut 
into slices. Cover the beets in the cans with clear, hot water. 
The flavor of the finished product is better if no seasoning is 
added during the canning. Process quart jars one to two hours, 
exhaust No. 2 cans for three minutes and process same as for 
quarts, or in a steam canner for 30 minutes at a temperature 
of 228° Fahrenheit. 

Beets should never be packed in tin unless the cans are enamel 
lined. About thirty baby beets to each No. 2 can is considered a 
good pack ; by weight sixteen ounces of beets and four ounces of 
liquor give a standard pack (Fig. 85 and Plate I, A). 

Carrots. — Carrots used for canning should be young and 
tender and not more than one and one-half inches in diameter. 
They are washed, scraped carefully, steamed or boiled until three- 



136 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




VEGETABLES FOR CAI^NING 137 

fourths cooked, and cut into lengths of the can, sliced or diced. 
Fill the jars or cans and cover with brine (two and one-half 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for one hour. 

An attractive pack of carrots in glass may be made by plac- 
ing the circles in layers, fitting the second layer into the space 
left by the first layer and repeating until the jar is filled. The 
center should be filled in as each outside layer is placed against 
the glass. 

Corn, — In the canning of corn much depends upon the careful 
selection of tender, juicy corn before it reaches the starchy stage. 
If allowed to grow beyond the point of greatest succulence it be- 
comes tough and dry. The sweet white variety is preferable for 
canning. The Western yellow corn is less succulent. Corn grows 
stale very quickly and loses its flavor, therefore it should never be 
allowed to stand longer than a few minutes after being snapped 
from the stalks before canning. Blanch on the cobs from one to 
three minutes. There are different procedures followed in cutting 
the kernels from the cob ; the kernels may be cut very close to 
the cob and no scraping done ; this will give a canned corn with 
nearly whole separate kernels in the brine. By another method 
the cutting may be done in such a manner that the outer end of 
the grain is cut off first, and then the lower part of the kernel 
is removed by a second cutting; this cutting will give a creamy 
consistency to the finished product. Another style of cutting the 
corn from the cob is to slit the end of the kernels and squeeze 
out the contents ; this will give a hull-less product similar to the 
commercial "Kornlet. " After removing the corn from the cob 
it may be packed into the jars or cans cold to within one inch of 
the top ; add one and one-half teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar 
mixture to each jar or can and cover with clear water; paddle 
to allow the liquid to permeate to the bottom of the containers. 
Exhaust No. 2 tin cans for ten minutes, process intermittently, 
cooling immediately after each processing by plunging the cans 
into cold water. If canning in glass, process quart jars inter- 
mittently, raising the clamp during each processing; for corn 
expands in cooking and the jars may be broken unless the lids are 
loosened during each processing. 



138 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

A product of more uniform consistency can be obtained by 
heating tlie corn with tlie seasoning (sugar, salt, and a little 
water) before packing it into the cans. This will cause the ex- 
pansion of the kernels before packing, and the result will be a 
fuller pack and shorten the time of the exhaust to five minutes 
instead of ten minutes, if the corn is packed hot into hot cans. 
It may seem that the heating of the pulp complicates or lengthens 
the process, but the time saved in exhausting and the condition 
of the finished product make it worth while. 

Take every precaution to have good rubbers, and keep the 
process at boiling-point for the entire time. The steps in the can- 
ning of corn should follow in rapid succession, allowing one hour 
from the time the corn is gathered until it is sealed in the can 
ready for the process. If processed or sterilized in a steam retort, 
eighty minutes under a fifteen-pound pressure will be suf- 
ficient for heavy corn ; or, if a water-bath is used, canned corn 
should be processed intermittently for one hour on each of three 
successive days. 

Lye Hominy. — Use the sweet flat corn. Most early varieties 
of sweet corn, of which "Stowell's Evergreen" is an example, 
have the flat kernels. To obtain best results in preparing lye 
hominy, dissolve two ounces of concentrated lye in one gallon of 
boiling water ; drop the corn into this solution and boil rapidly for 
twenty-five to thirty minutes. Drain and drop into cold water. If 
possible, allow cold water to run over it for three or four hours 
to remove all traces of the lye. After this, place in a barrel churn 
and turn the churn for five to ten minutes to remove the hulls 
and black eyes. After removing the hulls, place the corn in an 
enamelled kettle, cover with clear boiling water, and cook until 
tender. Wash again and remove any hulls or eyes which you 
failed to take ofi' in the churn. Enamel-lined cans or glass should 
be used for packing hominy. Fill the cans to within one-half 
inch of the top and cover with brine (two and one-half ounces 
of salt to one gallon of water). Cap and exhaust for ten min- 
utes. Process in No. 2 cans intermittently in a hot-water bath, 
or in a steam canner for fifty minutes under a fifteen-pound 
steam pressure. This product is more easily sterilized in No. 2 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 139 

cans. It is very important that all trace of the lye be removed 
before packing the hominy into the cans. 

Okra. — Select young, tender pods, removing the stem end 
without cutting into the seed sections, blanch in the soda bath (as 
for beans), plunge into the cold salt bath, drain, pack into jars, 
cover with brine, and process the same as for beans. This 
product is used almost exclusively in Southern cookery and is not 
generally known in the North. If the okra is to be packed for 
soups, it may be sliced after blanching, as it is hard to cut after 
canning. If a steam eanner is used, process for thirty minutes 
under a fifteen-pound steam pressure (Fig. 85 and Plate I, A). 

Peas. — Peas are more difficult to can than most other vege- 
tables, and special care should be taken in handling them. Use 
only fresh, young peas. They should be gathered in the early 
morning and canned as soon as possible. Work should be done 
rapidly, and the peas should not stand after being shelled. Shell 
and sort, putting peas of the same size and grade of maturity to- 
gether. Be sure not to use hard, ripe peas among the tender 
ones. The peas are blanched according to their age and size until 
well done : this prevents a cloudy liquor and makes the peas 
tender, also removing some of the gluey substance which some- 
times coats the peas. The very young, tender peas need scarcely 
more than one to two minutes' blanch, while the very old ones 
maj^ need twenty minutes'. The time should be sufficient to make 
the peas tender, otherwise they will remain hard in the processing. 
The peas are blanched in the soda bath and dipped into the 
cold salt water for twenty to thirty seconds after blanching, the 
same as for beans. Pack the peas to within one-half inch of the 
top of the jars or cans. If the cans are too full, some of the peas 
may burst during the processing and make the liquor cloudy. Put 
one and one-half level teaspoonfuls of the salt-and-sugar mixture 
in each No. 2 can. Cover the peas with water, exhaust No. 2 cans 
three minutes, and process in hot-water bath intermittently one 
hour on each of three successive days. If the peas are very small 
and tender, forty-five minutes to each processing will be sufficient. 
Cool the tins quickly after each processing. This may be done by 
plunging the cans into cold water. Process quart jars one hour 



140 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

on each of three successive days. No. 2 cans of peas may be 
sterilized in a steam retort for forty-five minutes under a ten- 
pound steam pressure. 

Pimientos. — The peppers should be picked in the early morn- 
ing and handled carefully to prevent bruising. This can be done 
by placing them in shallow trays, from which they can be easily 
sorted. The medium-sized, uniformly sound peppers should be 
canned whole. The irregular, broken ones may be cut into 
strips and canned or used in relishes, sauces, or soup mixtures. 

Select sound, uniform pimientos of medium size. To remove 
seeds, cut around the stem of each with a slender paring knife and 
remove the inside partitions. To peel, place the peppers in a hot 
oven from six to ten minutes (until the skin blisters and cracks), 
being careful not to allow them to burn. Then remove the skin 
with a slender paring knife. Flatten the peppers and pack in 
horizontal layers. No liquid is used in canning pimientos. The 
processing brings out of the pimientos a thick liquor, which almost 
covers them in the can or jar. Cap and exhaust No. 1 cans for 
two minutes and No. 2 cans for three minutes. Tip and process 
in hot water at boiling temperature (212° Fahrenheit), the No. 1 
cans for twenty minutes, the No. 2 cans for thirty-five minutes. 
When canning in glass the pint jars should be well filled, then 
capped and processed for twenty-five minutes at 212° Fahrenheit 
(Fig. 86). 

Chile Peppers. — The long, sweet green Chile peppers are 
picked and canned when full grown. Unlike the pimientos, the 
Chile peppers are canned before any tint of red appears. The 
pods may be dropped into hot oil to loosen the skins from the 
fleshy part. As soon as they are cool remove the skin, stem, and 
press out the seeds, leaving the Chile as nearly whole as possible, 
roll the Chile peppers and pack into cans, cover with brine, using 
one ounce of salt to one gallon of water, process the same as for 
pimientos (Fig. 87). 

Pumpkins. — The best pumpkins for canning are those which 
color and ripen evenly. Wash the pumpkin, cut into slices, and 
steam until tender. Eemove the pulp from the shell and heat it 
thoroughly in a pan over boiling water. A double boiler is a 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 



141 



convenient utensil to nse for this purpose. Spices may be added 
to the pumpkin if desired, and the tlavor obtained by cooking the 
spices in at the time of canning is better than making the addition 
at the time of using. The following proportion of ground spices 
is generally used: For each quart of steamed strained pumpkin 




Fig. 86. — Roasting and packing pimientos. 



add one-half cupful of brown sugar, two teaspoonfuls of cinna- 
mon, one teaspoonfid. of salt, and one teaspoonful of ginger. Stir 
the pulp until of a smooth, even consistency, pack into cans or 
jars while hot, and process in a water-bath intermittently one 
hour on each of three successive days or process in a steam- 



142 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



pressure outfit for sixty-five minutes under ten pounds pressure. 
Rhubarb. — Select rhubarb which has matured quickly. Trim 
off the upper and lower ends, wash and cut into even lengths. 
It may be packed in long strips in glass or it may be cut into 
inch lengths. Fill the jars as tightly as possible without crushing 
the pieces, and add water or syrup. As sugar is necessary when 
using the rhubarb, it is better that it be added at the time of can- 




FlG. 87 — Attractivp pepper packs in the center. 



ning. If syrup is desired, use one-half cupful of sugar to one 
quart of water. Rhubarb when packed in tin must be put into 
enamel-lined cans. It is usually preferred canned in glass. 
Process No. 2 cans and quart jars in hot-water bath for fifteen 
minutes at 212^ Fahrenheit. 

Spinach. — Prepare the spinach by picking off all the dead 
leaves and cutting off the roots. Cover one peck of spinach for 
two minutes with scalding water in which you have dissolved one 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 143 

teaspoonfnl of soda to a gallon of water. Wash thoronjsrlily, 
using a large tub of water so dirt can sink to the bottom ; drain 
and boil rapidly in boiling water four to six minutes. Drain well 
and pack hot into sterilized jars or cans, cover with boiling salt 
water, using one tablespoonful salt to one quart of water. Process 
in a water-bath for one hour at 212° Fahrenheit, or in a steam 
canner for 35 minutes under ten pounds pressure. 

Other Greens. — Young, tender beet tops, Swiss chard, and 
dandelions may be canned by the method outlined for spinach. 

Squash. — Squash is canned by the same method as pumpkin, 
omitting the spices. 

Sweet Potato. — Sweet potatoes should be canned as soon as 
possible after digging. A potato which is dry and mealy when 
canned is desired for market. The Xancy Hall is one of the 
best varieties for canning. The Triumph and Southern Queen 
are also used. When the potatoes are allowed to stand before can- 
ning they bruise easily and start to decay at the points where the 
rootlets emerge. Select absolutely sound potatoes, sort, putting 
together those of the same size — those under one and one-half 
inches in diameter in one lot and those above one and one-half 
inches in diameter in another — boil or steam until the potatoes are 
about half cooked, when the skin will slip off easily. Peel as soon 
as the potatoes are cool enough to handle, and pack hot into cans 
or jars as quickly as possible to prevent discoloring. For a 
fanc}^ pack the potatoes are placed in layers, but a standard pack 
can be made b}- mashing the potatoes, heating thoroughly, and 
packing the potatoes hot. All space in the can should be filled 
with potato, as the presence of air will cause discoloration. Ex- 
haust No. 3 cans for ten to fifteen minutes. The exhaust should 
be very hot, as the sweet potato is a poor conductor of heat, and 
the heat penetrates through the sweet potato to the center of the 
can very slowly. Process for four hours straight in boiling water 
or seventy minutes under fifteen pounds steam pressure. 

Tomatoes. — The fruit should be gathered in shallow trays 
and the picking done in the shortest posible time. The tomato is 
a delicate fruit, and if it is allowed to stand several days before 
canning, or if it is picked before being ripe and allowed to stand. 



144 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

it does not develop its characteristic flavor. Sort and grade the 
fruit. "Wash, putting into trays or squares of cheesecloth, and 
lowering into boiling water for one minute. Remove at once to 
prevent cooking. Plunge into cold water to make the fruit 
firmer. Peel promptly. Cut out the core with a slender-pointed 
knife, being careful not to cut into the seed-cells. Pack only 
red, ripe, sound tomatoes, whole or in large pieces. Add two 
teaspoonfuls of the sugar-and-salt mixture to each No. 3 can or 
quart jar, and one and one-half teaspoonfuls in each No. 2 can ; 




Fig. 88. — Tomatoes packed for salad (the thick sauce has been drained off). 

exhaust for three minutes and process No. 2 cans for twenty 
minutes and No. 3 cans and quart jars for twenty-five minutes. 

In canning tomatoes in tin no addition of tomato juice in 
excess of the amount present in the tomatoes canned should be 
allowed if the product is to be put on the market. Any water 
or extra tomato juice is considered an adulteration. "When it is 
desired to keep tomatoes whole for exhibits or home use, they may 



VEGETABLES FOR CANNING l45 

be pajcked carefully in glass. X thick tomato sauce poured over 
them will aid iu keeping the tomatoes whole, plump, and of a 
better color than is possible when they are packed in a thin 
liquor. From an economical standpoint, a jar of tomatoes packed 
in sauce is a fine product ; the sauce may be used for soups and 
whole tomatoes for salads (Fig. 88). 

Tomato Puree. — Small, irregular, and undersized tomatoes 
can be made into puree or soup. For this purpose they should 
be cooked and strained at the time they are canned rather than 
canned fresh. Tlie tomatoes are washed, graded, and cooked 
until tender, then run through the colander and put over the 
fire again. The mixture is then concentrated to from one- 
half to one-third of the original volume. This concentrated to- 
mato sauce may be canned and processed by the method outlined 
for tomatoes. The concentrated mixture, of course, requires 
fewer cans and jars, as the amount of water canned is reduced, 
and, with cans costing as they do, this is an important con- 
sideration. 

Soup Mixture. — A good combination to use for this mixture 
is one quart of thick tomato pulp, two cupfuls of corn or tiny lima 
beans, and two cupfuls of pkra, with seasoning of salt, sugar, pep 
per, and sliced onion (Fig. 85, D) . Cook this mixture together for 
ten minutes, pack in No. 2 cans or glass jars, exhaust for five min- 
utes, and process for two hours, or in a steam canner for thirty- 
five minutes under fifteen pounds pressure. 

Turnips. — Canned turnips are not generally used. Sometimes 
they are packed commercially for hotel use. Only small, tender 
turnips should be canned. Wash, scrape, blanch for five to eight 
minutes, pack into cans, cover with hot brine (two and one-half 
ounces of salt to one gallon of water) and process for two hours, 
or intermittently one hour on each of three successive days. 

Creole Sauce. — Two cupfuls of corn, three tablespoonfuls of 
chopped onion, one tablespoonful of celery seed (crushed), three 
tablespoonfuls of butter, one cupful of sliced okra, one bay leaf, 
one clove of garlic (chopped), one quart of tomato juice and 
pulp, one cupful of chopped sweet red pepper, one cupful of 
chopped sweet green pepper. Salt and pepper to taste. Strain 
10 



UG 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



m^. 




Fig. 89. — Vegetables packed fresh for soup mixture. 



VECxETABLES FOR CANNING 147 

the seeds and skins out of the cooked tomatoes, keeping all pulp 
possible. Cook chopped onion in butter until yellow. Add the 
prepared vegetables and seasoning. Simmer until the corn is 
tender. Pack hot in twelve-ounce or pint jars or No. 2 cans. 
Process in the glass jars for thirty minutes. Exhaust No. 2 
cans for five minutes and process for twenty minutes. 

Mushrooms. — Directions for canning mushrooms may be ob- 
tained from Experiment Station Bulletin No. 98, "Preserving 
Wild Mushrooms," published by Oregon Agricultural College, 
Corvallis, Ore. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State a general outline to be followed in the selection, preparation, and 

canning of most vegetables. If any step should be omitted for special 
vegetables, note the step, naming tlie vegetables for which it should 
be omitted; if there should be any steps added for special vegetables, 
describe them, naming the vegetables for which they are necessary. 

2. What is the usual strength of brine used with vegetables? 

3. What is the proportion of sugar and salt in the sugar-and-salt mixture? 

4. For what vegetables should a tin can not be used unless it is enamel 

lined? Why is this true? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

CHAPTERS IX AND X 

1. Creswell, M. E., and- Powell, Ola, "Pimientos," revised 1918, Circular 

No. A-84, States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

2. Ckuess, W. v., " Home and Farm Canning," 1917, Circular No. 158, 

" Canning Fruits and Vegetables, Methods of Food Preservation," 
" Drying Fruits and Vegetables, Methods of Food Preservation, III." 
University of California, Berkeley, California. 

3. Handy, Amy L., " War Food." Published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 

New York City, N. Y. 

4. The Canning Trade, "A Complete Course in Canning," 1911. Published 

by the MacNeal Printing Company, Baltimore, Md. $5. 

5. Young, Ermentine, " Canning and Preserving Fruit and Vegetables and 

Preparing Fruit Pastes and Syrups," 1892. Published by the Rural 
Publishing Company, New York City, N. Y. 

6. Dearing, Chas., "Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes," 1917, Farmers' 

Bulletin No. 859, "Muscadine Grape Syrup," 1917, Farmers' Bul- 
letin No. 758, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
Note. — See footnote under Bibliography, page 299, for complete list of 

instruction circulars prepared especially for use in the Home Canning Clubs 

for Boys and Girls in the North and West. 



CHAPTER XI 

PRESERVES 

A PRESERVED FRUIT IS ODG which has been cooked in cane-sugar 
syrup until it is clear, tender, and transparent. It should keep 
its form and plumpness and be crisp ratlier than tough or soft. 
"When finished, the cells of the fruit should be filled with the fla- 
vored syrup in place of the fruit juice. 

In general, all the principles thus far discussed in canning are 
to be applied also in preserving. The special problem in preserv- 
ing is to be able to introduce the syrup gradually enough to make 
it possible for the syrups to permeate the fruit thoroughly with- 
out shrinking and toughening it. When fruit is dropped at once 
into hot syrup that is too dense, the juice of the fruit will be 
drawn out so rapidly by this heavy liquid as to shrink the fniit. 
Then the outside surface becomes so coated with thick syrup that 
little can enter the fruit. In order to prevent this toughening and 
shrinking, it is necessary to start the cooking of the fruit in a 
thin syrup. Most preserves should be begun in a syrup testing 
about 30 to 40 degrees Brix or Balling and gradually have the 
syrup thicken by boiling with the fruit in it (Frontispiece). 

Cooking Preserves. — Preserves should be cooked over a very 
hot fire as rapidly as possible to have the finished product spark- 
ling bright, clear, and of a good color. If slowly cooked, the result 
will be a dull, dark, unattractive product. The fruit, while cook- 
ing, should be well covered with the syrup so that no top pieces 
will dry on the surface and shrivel before a sufficient amount of 
syrup has entered the pieces to plump them. Sometimes the 
syrup becomes too thick before the fruit is sufficiently clear and 
tender, as may happen when a small quantity of fruit is cooked 
in a large pan. In this case the water in the syrup evaporates 
more quickly on account of the broad surface exposed, and the 
syrup should be thinned by adding a small amount of water or a 
quantity of thinner syrup. Beginning the process of preserving 
fruit in a thin syrup, cooking rapidly until pieces are clear and 
148 



PRESERVES 



149 



allowing the fruit to stand immersed in the symp over night will 
cause more of the syrup to permeate the fruit and plump it. If 
this process be carried on gradually enough, the fruit may be com- 
pletely saturated with syrup (as in the case of crystallized 




Fig. 90. — Packing watermelon rind preserves, Peabody College for Teachers, 
Nashville, Tenn. 

products) without shrinking. The finished product should keep 
its original form, be plump, mellow, and clear. 

For preserving such fruits as chayotes, pears, and watermelon 
rind (Fig. 90) a syrup not heavier than 30 degrees Balling (p. 



150 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



132) should be used to begin the cooking. Juicy fniits like berries 
may be put at the beginning into a heavier syrup, about 40 to 45 
(a degrees Balling, because the al)un(lant juices of 

the fruit quickly reduce the density of the syrup 
before shrinking can take place. Finished pre- 
serves are packed in a syrup ranging in density 
from 50 to 60 degrees Balling. When acid fruits 
are added to the syrup some of the sugar is in- 
verted or changed to a form which will not readily 
crystallize, and for this reason the syrup may be 
made heavier without danger of crystallization. 
Since long cooking injures the color and flavor 
of fruits, it is desirable to cook delicate fruits, 
such as berries, for as short a time as possible. 

Cooling Preserves. — Cooling rapidly after 
cooking gives preserves a better color and flavor 
than can be secured when they are packed hot. 
Standing immersed in the synip after cooking 
helps to plump the fruit. Shallow enamelled 
trays or pans are desirable for cooling. Running 
cold water underneath the pans will help to cool 
them more rapidly (Fig. 92). Tin utensils should 
not be used, because the fmit juices will discolor 
in it. 

Packing. — Pack preserves cold. Bring the 
syrup in which they have been standing to boil- 
ing, strain, test, and, if proper density, pour over 
the packed preserves, paddling the packed jars to 
remove all air bubbles. If not of the right weight 
for packing, the syrup must be concentrated to 
the proper density by boiling it. A well-packed 
jar of presei'ves will contain f raits or pieces of 
Fig. 91— Achem- frnit of uuiform size appropriate for filling the 

ical thermometer — 

Centigrade. space witliiu the jar. These pieces should be 

arranged in rows or layers in such a way as to give the entire 
pack a symmetrical or well-balanced appearance. A little more 



PRESERVES 



151 



time and care is required to pack in this way, but the space is 
economized and the quality of the finished product is enhanced 
(Fig. 93). 

Sealing Preserves. — To seal properly and to insure safety 
from mold, it is necessary to process all preserves after packing 
them into the sterilized jars. This processing may be done in a 
water-bath by heat below or at the boiling temperature, depend- 
ing upon the kind of products packed and upon the length of 
time the heat is applied. Since preserves contain so much sugar, 
which acts as a preservative, it is only necessary to process 
against molds. This may be accomplished by placing the filled 
jars in a water-bath, heating it to a temperature of 180° to 190° 




Fig. 92. — -Cooling and plumping preserved fruits. 

Fahrenheit, and holding that temperature for about thirty 
minutes. This method preserves a better texture and flavor in 
-the fruit, than can be retained when processing is done at a 
higher temperature. 

Process preserves or jams in twelve-ounce or pint jars for 
twenty minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (temperature of simmering 
water). When jars with glass tops and screw caps or wire 
clamps (lightning seal) are used, leave the pressure of the clamp 
on the top of cap until the jars are entirely cold. 

Special Equipment. — Success depends more upon the perfect 
freshness of the fruit than any other feature. ' ' From the patch 
with dispatch," is a good slogan. 



152 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Uniform results may be obtained more easily if some special 
equipment, such as good enamel or aluminum vessels, scales, 
measuring cups, wooden spoons, paddles, thermometers, and 
saccharometers, is secured. A thermometer which gives readings 
by degrees Fahrenheit for each degree from zero to 250° is use- 
ful in determining the finishing point in preserves (Fig. 91) ; 
1051/2° to 1061/2° Centigrade, or 222° to 224° Fahrenheit is 
recommended as the finishing point for most fruits. The syrup 




Fig. 93. — Packing preserved figs, Walton County, Florida. 

will not reach 221:° Fahrenheit until a sufficient amount of water 
has been driven off by tlie boiling. The temperature test is per- 
haps the simplest test for the finished preserving syrup. All of 
the different batches of preserves should be cooked enough and 
be of uniform consistency. Some sour fruits, such as cherries and 
currants, when preserved are cooked to a higher temperature 
because of the acid present. 106° to 108° Centigrade or 224° 
to 226° Fahrenheit is a good finishing point for these products. 
The saccharometer is a little more difficult than the ther- 
mometer to handle, since sufficient syrup must be taken from 



PRESERVES 



153 



the kettle, poured over the spindle into a cylinder or bottle deep 
enough to float it, and the reading taken, or the spindle may be 
floated in the kettle if it is deep enough. 

Proportion of Sugar. — Usually three-fourths pound of sugar 
for each pound of fruit is allowed for preserves. Firm fruits 



I «'*!*- I J '^^ 




Fig. 94. — Packing peanut butter commercially. (Courtesy Beachnut Co.) 



like quinces, melon rinds, hard pears, and crab apples are better 
if cooked in boiling water until tender before adding them to 
the syrup. 

The use of preserves in the daily menu should be limited, since 
they are so much richer than fresh and plain canned fruits. 
Strawberries, plums, sour cherries, quinces, and melon rind are 
more palatable when preserved than when canned. 

Berries. — None but the freshly picked berries should be pre- 
served. Practically the sam^ methods are to be followed in the 



154 SUCCESSFUL. CANNING AND PRESERVING 

preserving of all berries. Berries should he gathered in shallow 
trays or baskets, and not in deep vessels whieli allow them to be 
bruised and crushed. They should be uniform, ripe, and sound ; 
only large, firm berries should be selected for preserving. All 
berries should be carefully sorted and lightly washed by placing 
in colander and pouring water over them rather than putting 
them into a pan of water. 

The following proportion is recommended : two pounds of 
whole berries — two and one-half pounds of sugar — one pint of 
berry juice. 

If the best possible color and flavor is to be secured for the 
finished product, the syrup for preserved berries should be made 
of berry juice, obtained by crushing, heating and straining the 
softer broken berries. Boil together the beriy juice and the 
sugar and skim and cook the syrup before dropping the berries 
into it, to prevent shrivelling and toughening the fruit. Return 
to the fire and bring slowly to a boil in a covered pan. Remove 
the cover and cook until the fruit looks clear, being very care- 
ful not to overcook; the berries should remain whole. If a 
thermometer is used the cooking may be finished at 222° to 224° 
Fahrenheit. Skim and cool in a covered pan. If berry preserves 
are covered for five minutes before removing from the fire and 
the vessel left covered while cooling the product will be more 
plump. The fruit will be better if allowed to cool in shallow 
trays or pans and stand in the syrup over night ; it improves the 
shape and flavor, as the berries absorb more of the syrup, be- 
come heavier, and pack better. Lift the berries out of the syrup 
carefully and pack cold, filling the sterilized jars with berries be- 
fore pouring the syrup over them. A good pack requires more 
berries than syrup. Cap, process pint jars for ten minutes at 
180° Fahrenheit, seal, and store in a dark dry place. 

Packing syrup for berries should have a density of 50 to 55 
degrees Balling (see p. 129). 

Strawberry Preserves. — 

2 pounds of berries 1/2 cup of berry juice 

lYo pounds of sugar 



PRESERVES 155 

Wash, cap, and stQin the strawberries. Make a syrup of the 
sugar and juice and add the berries. Cook to 222° Fahrenheit 
or 1051/.° Centigrade, or until the syrup is very thick. Cook 
quickly, pack into sterilized jars, and seal as for preserves. ]\Iore 
of the natural flavor is retained by using this method, and no 
syrup will be left over, which means a saving in sugar, but the 
yield is not so great and the fruit does not remain whole and 
plump as in the first method given above. 

Currant and Cherry Preserves. — White currants and cherries 
may be preserved by following the same directions given for 
strawberry presei'ves, except that in using a thermometer to de- 
termine the finishing point for cherry preserves the temperature 
should be run up to 226° Fahrenheit or 107° Centigrade. A 
heavier packing syrup is more necessary for sour cherries than 
for the sweet ones. 

Sun-cooked Preserves. — Cherries, currants, raspberries or 
strawberries alone, or a combination of two-thirds currants and 
one-third raspberries, may be cooked by this method. Dampness 
is a great foe to successful sun cookerj^ The berries should be 
washed, capped, stemmed, drained, and measured. Allow an 
equal weight of sugar for fruit. For each two pounds of berries 
measure one-fourth cupful of berry juice and heat with the 
sugar. Cook and pour over the whole berries in shallow trays. 
Stand in the sun for three or four days, bringing indoors each 
night. Allow the fruit to remain in the sun until it is well 
plumped and the syrup has thickened almost to a jelly. If the 
sun fails to shine, keep the preserves in a cool oven. 

Sour Orange Preserves. — The peel of the native sour orange, 
which is found in the southern part of the Gulf States, makes 
delightful preserves. Grate off evenly all yellow, cut the oranges 
into quarters, and peel. Soak the peel in salt water (one cup- 
ful of salt to one gallon of water) for two or three days, chang- 
ing the water twice daily. Cover with clear water and boil for 
ten minutes, drain, and repeat the boiling twice to remove all 
bitterness. When the peel is tender drop it into a heavy syrup 
(two cupfuls of sugar to two cupfuls of sweet orange juice) for 
each two pounds of peel, and cook rapidly until clear and trans- 



156 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

parent. Cool before packing, pack into sterilized jars, process 
pints for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, seal, and store. 
Preserved Whole Kumquats. — 

2 pounds of wliolc kiiniquats 2 pounds of sugar 

(after oookinir) 1 quart of water 

Scrub the kuuK^uats with soap and warm water, scald them 
with boiling soda water, using a cupful of soda to five quarts 
of water. Allow fruit to stand in the soda bath until cool, 
drain and slit each kumquat with a sharp-pointed knife to pre- 
vent them from bursting open while cooking. Drop into boiling 
water and cook for ten or fifteen minutes (until tender). After 
this the seeds can easily be removed. Boil the sugar and water 
together for ten minutes, add the drained kumquats and cook 
until clear and transparent. The fruit will keep its shape better 
if the cooking is done in a covered pan. Carefully place the 
fruit into trays, pour the syrup over it and allow to remain over 
night to plump. Pack the kumquats into sterilized jars, strain 
and pour the syrup over them, j^rocess pint jars for fifteen 
minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, and seal tightly while hot. 

Kumquat Preserves. — 
1 pound of kumquats % pound of sugar 

1 pint of water 

The kumquat pulp, which remains in the filter after the juice 
has been drained off for jelly, may be made into a preserve. The 
seeds should be removed when the fruit is first prei)ared for the 
jelly. Pass the pulp through a food chopper, weigh, and allow 
three-fourths pound of sugar for each poiuid of pulj^. Cook the 
water and pulp together for twenty minutes, add the sugar, and 
continue boiling rapidly until the mixture becomes bright and 
clear and of proper consistency. If Satsuma orange juice is 
used in place of water in these kumquat recipes an even more 
delightful flavor may be obtained in the finished product. 

Preserved Peaches. — 

1 peck of peeled peaches 3% pounds of brown sugar 

3 pints of cider vinegar 14 ounce of nutmeg 

1 ounce of cloves 1 ounce of cinnamon 



PRESERVES 157 

Peel the peaches and put them into a stone jar. Break up 
spices, scald, and then strew them through the peaches. Boil 
sugar and vinegar together for ten minutes and pour over the 
peaches while very hot. Repeat this for three consecutive days, 
then boil all together for ten minutes, cool, pack, and process. 

Plums may be preserved by the same method as for peaches 
but adding one pint less of vinegar. 

Preserved Pears. — 

1 pound of pears 1 cupful of water 

% jjound of sugar 

Pears may be preserved whole, in halves, or quarters. Seckel 
pears are often preserved whole. If Keifer pears are used, they 
should boil in clear water after being pared until they can be 
easily pierced with a darning-needle. Then place them in the 
syrup, cook, cool, plump, pack, process, and seal the same as for 
all preserves. 

Ginger Pears. — Use hard or under-ripe pears, pare, core, and 
cut into very' thin slices. To eight pounds of pears allow eight 
pounds of sugar, one cupful of water, juice of four lemons. Cut 
the lemon rinds into thin strips and add. Also add one-eighth 
pound of ginger root cut into pieces. Simmer until thick as 
marmalade. Pack like peach jam. 

Ginger Apples. — Hard varieties of apples are delicious when 
preserved by the method just outlined. 

Apple Preserves. — 

1 pound of ap23les 1 cupful of water 

1 pound of sugar Vs lemon sliced thinly 

Whole crab apples, packed with or without the stems, make 
an attractive preserve. Pare, allow the apples to remain whole, 
and follow same directions given for plain preserved peaches. 

After the apples have plumped in the syrup over night it 
may be necessary to pour off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes, 
or until it is of the desired consistency. Strain the syrup and 
pour it over the apples, which have been carefully placed so that 
all stems will be upward. Process and seal as for all preserves. 

Large, firm apples, if used for preserves, are perhaps better 



158 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

if pared, cored, and quartered before cooking in the syrup. The 
parings and cores may be boiled for fifteen minutes in the water 
and strained out before the sugar is added to make the syrup. 
This will add color and some pectin to the preserving syrup. 
Pectin is the jelly-making substance found in some fruit juices. 

Golden Pumpkin Chips. — Remove the skin and seeds from a 
medium-sized pumpkin which has been cut into quarters; then 
slice the pieces across, cutting each piece about one-quarter 
inch thick. Prepare a syrup as for preserved apples, allowing 
three-quarter pound of sugar to each pound of pumpkin, and 
proceed by the directions given in that recipe. 

Preserved Watermelon Rind. — 

1 pound of melon riiul 1 lemon 

1 pound of sugar 1 ounce of lime (CaO) 

2 (juarts of water 

Cut the rind into one-inch squares, remove peel and all pink 
part, and weigh. Soak over night in lime water (one ounce of 
lime to two quarts of water). The lime (calcium oxide) may be 
secured from a drug store. The following morning allow the 
rind to stand for two hours in clear water. Drain well, then 
drop into boiling water and boil rapidly for ten minutes. Drain 
again and add gradually to the syrup (made by boiling together 
two cupfuls of sugar and one quart of water). Add to this the 
juice of one-half lemon and three extra slices of lemon. Cook 
until the melon is tender and transparent. Allow to stand cov- 
ered with the syrup until cold, arrange the pieces attractively in 
the jars, garnishing with slices of lemon. Cover with the syrup 
testing 50 to 55 degrees. Process and seal (see p. 129). 

Gingered Watermelon Rind. — 

1 pound of melon rind 1 ounce of ginger 

1^4 pounds of sugar % lemon 

Follow the same method as for melon rind preserves until 
after the rind has been freshened in cold water. Then drain 
well and boil rapidly for fifteen minutes in strong ginger tea 
(one ounce of ginger to one quart of water). Finish cooking in 
a 30-degree syrup made by using two pints of the strained ginger 



PRESERVES 159 

tea with two pints of water and one and one-half pounds of 
sugar. Cook rapidly until tender and transparent (about one 
hour). After rind has boiled for one-half hour, add one-half 
lemon, cut into thin slices. Cook until rind is tender and trans- 
parent. Cool, pack, and process like preserves. 

Gingered watermelon rind, chopped finely, is excellent to com- 
bine with canned sweet red pimientos for making the Spanish 
chutney (see p. 206). 

Preserved Figs. — 

G quarts of figs 1 cupful of baking soda 

4 pounds of sugar 6 quarts of boiling water 

3 quarts of water 

Select firm, sound fruit, discard all over-ripe or broken figs. 
Sprinkle one cupful of baking soda over the selected figs and 
cover with about six quarts of boiling water. Allow them to 
stand for fifteen minutes, drain off this soda solution, and rinse 
the figs well in clear, cold water. Let the figs drain while syrup 
is being prepared. Mix sugar and the three quarts of water, 
boil for ten minutes, and skim. Add well-drained figs gradu- 
ally so as not to cool the syrup. Cook rapidly until figs are clear 
and tender (about two hours). When the figs are transparent, 
lift them out carefully and place in shallow pans. If the syrup 
is not heavy enough (testing about 50 to 55 degrees with a sac- 
charometer), continue boiling until it reaches the desired density, 
then pour it over the figs, being careful to see that the fruit is 
entirely covered. Let stand over night. Next morning pack the 
figs cold in sterilized jars, having stems all the same length and 
placing the figs so that all stems will be upward. Fill each jar 
to overflowing with the syrup of 55 degrees density (p. 132). 
Cap, clamp, process, and seal immediately. 

Yellow Tomato Preserves. — 

4 pounds of fruit 14 ounce of ginger 

6 pounds of sugar ^2 lemon 

2 quarts of water l^ ounce of cinnamon 

Boil together water, sugar, lemon, and spices for fifteen 
minutes, or until 217° Fahrenheit is reached; add fruit gradu- 



160 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

ally and cook f2:eiitly until the fruit becomes ])rif;ht and clear, 
stirrinfr occasionally and being careful not to allow it to burn. 
If a thermometer is used, cook to 222° Fahrenheit, pour into 
trays, stand over night, pack the tomatoes cold, and strain the 
syrup over them. Process as for other preserves. 

Small green or red tomatoes may be preserved whole by this 
same method. 

Pineapple Preserves. — 

1 pound of fruit % pound of sugar 

Peel, core, and slice the fruit, place alternate layers of sugar 
and fruit in a bowl and allow to stand over night. Next morn- 
ing drain off the syrup and boil it for ten minutes, add the fruit 
and continue cooking fifteen minutes, remove from the fire, 
skim and pack into jars, process pint jars at 212° Fahrenheit for 
fifteen minutes in a water-bath. 

Cherry Preserves. — 

4 pounds of cherries 1 cupful of cherry juice 

3 pounds of sugar 

Make a syrup of the sugar and fruit juice, cool, add seeded 
cherries, and cook rapidly until fruit is clear and syrup is of 
the proper consistency. If a thermometer is used, finish cherry 
preserves at 106° to 108° Centigrade, or 223° to 226° F. Cool, 
pack into jars, and process as for other preserves. 

Cherries (Vinegarette). — 

4 pounds of sweet cherries 3 pounds of sugar 

1 quart of vinegar 1 cupful of cherry juice 

Carefully remove the stones, place cherries in trays or pans, 
and cover with diluted vinegar (two cupfuls of water and one 
cupful of vinegar). Allow to stand over night, drain well next 
morning, and cover the four pounds of fruit with a heavy syrup, 
made by boiling together three pounds of sugar and one cupful 
of cherry juice. Allow to stand in this syrup in the sun for 
three or four days to plump. Pack into jars and strain the syrup 
over them. Cherries preserved in this way are sometimes called 
homemade maraschino cherries. This product may be artificially 
colored with vegetable coloring matter, which can be secured from 



PRESERVES 



161 



the druggist. A small amount of the coloring should be added 
when the cherries are put in the heavy syrup. 

Candied Fruits. — Whole cherries, apricots, peaches, and pears 




Fig. 95. — A steam- jacketed preserving kettle. (Heinz Company.) 
Note use of thermometer and arm and ball weight valve to control steam pressure. 

in halves, sliced pineapples, and whole figs are often prepared in 
this way. Tt is a lengthy and tedious procedure. It calls for 
11 



162 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

slow cookiiis: on the instalment plan, and shallow trays for 
plumping the fruit are necessary. 

First, the fruit to be candied should be washed, peeled, or 
pared, if necessary, cut or sliced and dropped into boiling water 
for two or three minutes. Drain well, cover with syrup made by 
boiling together one pound of sugar for each pound of fruit with 
one cupful of water. Boil rapidly for fifteen minutes, remove 
from the fire, and allow to stand over night. The next morning 
boil for ten or fifteen minutes again, and repeat the heating and 
cooling for four to six days, according to how rapidly the water is 
drawn out and the syrup is absorbed. The fruit plumps slowly, 
and the gradual increase in the density of the syrup caused by 
the many cookings insures tender fruit which is filled with syrup. 
After the fruit is transparent and bright, lift it from the syrup 
and dry in the sun or in a cool oven. 

Crystallized Fruit. — If a crystallized fruit is desired, use 
fruit prepared by the preceding recipe. When the fruit is dry, 
cover it with a 60-degree syrup (see p. 132) and allow it to stand 
for two or three days; then drain ofif the syrup and dry the 
pieces of fruit in the sun or in a cool oven. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by preserved fruit? What is the standard for such? 

2. What is tlie special problem in preserving? 

3. What preliminary step is it wise to take when preserving liard fruits, 

as quinces, hard pears, etc.? 

4. Why should preserving be done over a hot fire? What is the effect of 

slow cooking? 

5. What is the difference between preserved, candied, and crystallized 

fruit? 

6. Describe a good saccharometer to use in preserving, stating its name, 

purpose, and method of use. 

7. How may a thermometer be used if no saccharometer were at hand? 

8. Describe how each instrument may be used to determine when the final 

point in cooking has been reached. 

9. When preserving, how will yovi decide liow dense the syrup shall be 

into whicli you place the fruit? 

10. Why sliould preserves be allowed to cool before packing? 

11. When packed, at what temperature should they be processed? What is 

the purpose of this processing? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
See Chapter XTIT, page 188. 



CHAPTER XII 

MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 

MarMzVlades, jams and conserves, when well made, always 
show a jell.y-like appearance, thus denoting that there must be 
some pectin present in the fruit which is used. Pectin is the 
jelly-making property found in some fruit juices (see description 
under "Jelly Making," p. 174). Marmalades, jams and con- 
serves should be cooked very rapidly over a hot fire in order to 
retain the best flavor and a l>right color. These are the most 
attractive features of the finished products. 

Marmalades. — If large fruits are made into marmalades they 
are thinly sliced and cooked in a clear syrup as in preserving. 
The finished product shows the fruit appearing in small pieces 
throughout the mixture, and it is smooth in consistency. 

When marmalades are made of citrus fruits, such as grape- 
fruit, orange, kumquat, and lemon, the pectin is found in the 
white inner skin ; none is present in the juice. The yield of the 
finished product of marmalades made by the three-day process is 
greater, but it is perhaps no clearer nor more jelly-like in con- 
sistency than that which is made in a single day. The pectin in 
the fruit is extracted by standing, heating, and reheating with 
the acid present. Cool marmalade to 176° Fahrenheit or 80'^ 
Centigrade before pouring into glasses or jars. This prevents 
the pieces from rising. 

Jams. — Whole small fruits are used in making jams, but the 
fruit does not remain whole in the preparation of jam. The 
syrup is bright and the mixture is alike throughout when the 
product is finished. Practically the same methods are followed 
in making jams of all berries. The ripe broken ones give a fine 
color and flavor, but one-half of the quantity of the berries se- 
lected for making jam should be slightly under-ripe ; this is 
necessary to give the jelly-like consistency to the finished prod- 

163 



164 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

uct. More pectin is usually present in rare-ripe or under-ripe 
fruit than in prime ripe fruit. Cookinji^ in small (juantities will 
also help to retain the color and flavor. A more delicate flavor 
will be retained by allowing three-quarters pound of sugar to 
each pound of berries than by using an equal proportion by 
weight of each. 

Jam should be cooked rapidly in a porcelain-lined vessel and 
stirred with a wooden spoon or paddle. Frequently move the 
spoon across the center of the pan, first toward you and then from 
you, and around and across the pan, being careful to move the 
mixture from the bottom of it. Do not stir too rapidly or beat 
the mixture. A thermometer is useful in making jams, cooking 
to 222° Fahrenheit when finished. They will then give the same 
test as for jelly: cool a small (juantity in a spoon, and when it 
flakes off the side of the spoon instead of coming off in drops it is 
finished, and should be removed from the fire immediately. Jams 
are thicker when cold than when hot, and care should be taken 
not to cook them too long. 

By processing jams in pints or small jars in the hot-water 
bath for twenty to thirty minutes at 180° Fahrenheit the flavor 
and the color are better preserved than when processed at boil- 
ing temperatures or over. A perfect seal may be secured by 
tightening the cap immediately at the end of the processing. 

Fruit butters and pastes are those products made from the 
edible portion of the fruit which has been passed through a sieve 
and which has had the excess of water driven off, by cooking, 
until its consistency is somewhat similar to the dairy product 
butter, but not quite as thick. The fruits used for the making 
of butters sliould be ripe, as immature or green fruit will notice- 
ably affect the flavor of the product, and the fruit must be sound, 
as any decayed portion of the fruit entering into the manufac- 
ture will affect the taste and is readily detected by chemists, 
the use of partly decayed fruit being in violation of the Federal 
and state food laws. In the process of making butters it is 
necessary that the edible portion be passed through a colander 
or a sieve of some description. The size of the mesh of the sieve 
will tend to affect the texture of the finished product. Only a 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 165 

small amount of sugar is required, and most of the fruit butters 
have some spices added to them. The excess of water is driven 
off by cooking until the consistency is somewhat similar to the 
dairy butter. Fruit butters are generally used in the same 
manner as jams and marmalades. 

Fruit pastes and rolls are somewhat dryer than the butter 
and are used for sandwich fillings and often as a confectionery. 

Conserves. — Conserves are made either of small or large 
fruits, or both combined, with sometimes the addition of nuts and 
raisins. Rapid cooking and constant care are essential when 
making conserves. Nuts, when used, should be added five minutes 
before removing from the fire. 

MARMALADES 

Orange Marmalade. — 

.3 pounds of oranges 1^2 pints of water 

3 lemons 3 pounds of sugar 

Wash, remove the peel and seeds, cutting one-half of the 
peel into very thin strips, and add it to the pulp and balance of 
the peel, which has first had the yellow portion grated off and 
has been passed through a food chopper with the pulp. Cover 
with water and let stand over night. Boil for ten minutes the 
next morning, allow to stand for twelve hours, add the sugar and 
again stand over night. Cook it rapidly the next morning until 
the jelly test can be obtained. This is indicated by the flaking 
and sheeting from the spoon. Cool to 176° Fahrenheit, pour 
into sterilized glasses, and seal with parafifin. 

Sour Orange. — 

1 pound of peeled sour orange 14 pound of peel removed 

1 quart of water f 10m oranges 

IVjj pounds of sugar 

AVash the fruit, remove the peel in imiform sections, using 
only the portions which are free from blemishes. Cut the peel 
into as thin slices as possible, cover with water, and boil for ten 
minutes. Drain, cover with boiling water, and repeat the proc- 
ess four or five times to remove the bitter flavor. 



16fi SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Weigh the pulp, slice, and for each pound of oranges allow 
one quart of water and boil until veiy tender. l*our into a 
flannel jelly-bag, press until no more juice can be obtained, and 
filter the juice through another clean tiannel jelly-bag without 
pressing. Measure and pour the juice into the kettle, add the 
sliced peel, and II/2 pounds of sugar for each pound of fruit 
taken, and boil rapidly until it reaches the jelly point. 

Grapefruit. — Make this according to directions given for sour 
orange marmalade, adding three-quarter pound of sugar to each 
pound of fruit, instead of one and one-half pounds. 

Kumquat. — Clean the kumquats with a brush and water. 
Cover them with scalding soda water (one-half cupful of soda 
to one gallon of water) and allow them to stand for five minutes. 
Rinse in clear water, slice the fruit, and remove the seeds. Re- 
move the centers from one-fourth of these slices, parboil them 
for three minutes. Place all except slices in a preserving kettle, 
and for each pound of pulp allow one quart of water. Cook 
until tender. Strain, measure, and add one pint of sugar for 
each pint of fruit juice. Add slices or circles of the rind and 
cook all together until the jelly stage is reached. Cool, pour 
into sterilized containers, and seal. The pulp and rind which 
remains may be made into a delicious jam. 

Combination (Orange, Grapefruit, and Lemon). — 
1 orange 1 gra])efriiit 

1 lemon 

Wash and shred the fruit, add three times the bulk of water, 
boil for fifteen minutes, and let stand over night. Next morn- 
ing boil for ten minutes and let stand again. When cold, meas- 
ure pint for pint of sugar and cook over a rapid fire until jelly 
stage is reached. 

Crab Apple. — Wash and core crab apples and put them 
through a food chopper. Place in a preserving kettle and add 
water, not (piite covering the top layer of apples. Cook until 
tender. Weigh and add three-quarters of a pound of sugar to 
each pound of fruit. Cook until the jelly stage is reached ; pour 
into sterilized glasses, cool, and cover with paraffin. 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 167 

JAMS 

Berry. — Wild berries may be used in all these recipes. The 
Eldorado is the best variety of blackberries and the Cuthbert is 
the best variety of raspberry for jam. Follow general directions 
for making- jams of all berries (see p. 163). 

Grape. — Remove the grapes from the stems, wash and press 
the pulps from the skins. Boil the pulp until tender, and run it 
through a sieve to remove the seeds. Cook the hulls until tender 
in a small amount of water. Chop the tender skins, add the 
seedless pulp and weigh. To each pound of fruit allow one-half 
pound of sugar and cook together until the skins are tender. If 
sweet varieties of grapes are used less sugar may be needed, while 
if the varieties are acid the proportion of sugar had better be 
increased to % pound of sugar for each pound of grapes. Sweet 
varieties of grapes with meaty skins which readily soften make a 
good jam when only li/. pounds of sugar to 3 pounds of graj^es 
are used. 226° Fahrenheit ^yill prove a satisfactory finishing- 
point if a thermometer is used. Pack hot and seal immediately. 
Spices may be added if desired. 

Fig Jam. — Select ripe figs, remove all stems, treat them with 
scalding soda solution, and rinse thoroughly as for preserving. 
Cook in quantities not larger than 3 pounds at one time. Allow 
IY2 pounds of sugar to each 3 pounds of figs. Add barely enough 
water to start the cooking (about one-half cupful), crush the figs, 
heat to boiling and add the sugar. Cook rapidly to 220° Fahren- 
heit. Pack and process like preserves (see pp. 150 and 151). 

Peach Jam. — 

1 incli of jjinger root 1 sprip; of mace 

2 pounds of peaches 1 pound of sugar 

I/2 cupful of peacli juice 2 teaspoonfuls of bark cinna- 
1 cracked peach seed mon (broken in small pieces) 

V2 teaspoonful of allspice 1 teaspoonful of cloves 

Tie spices into cheesecloth bags; cook all materials together 
until a temperature of 222° Fahrenheit is reached. Remove 
spice-bag. Pack hot and seal. 



168 SUCCESSFUL CANNJNG AND PJiKSERVlNG 

BUTTERS 

Apple Butter. — 

10 pounds of apples 2 tablespoon fuls of ground 

4 pounds of sugar allsjjice 

2 tablespoonfuls of ground 3 tablespoonfuls of ground cin- 

cloves nanion 

G quarts of cider 

Wash, slice, and weigh the apples. Put into a kettle with the 
cider and cook until the apples are very tender. Pass them 
through a sieve to remove the skins and seed. Add sugar and 
spices to the pulp. Cook until the mass is as thick as desired, 
stirring frequently to prevent burning. Pour into sterilized 
crocks or jars, and when cool cover with paraffin. 

Peach Butter. — 

1 bushel of pcac'lies 1 gallon of peach juice 

5 pounds of sugar 

Prepare the juice and allow it to stand until slightly fer- 
mented. Combine peaches, juice, sugar, and one-half dozen peach 
kernels. Cook and pack as for apple butter. 

Grape Butter. — 

2 pounds of grapes 1 jjound of sugar 

Vl> cujj of water 

Select ripe grapes, wash, crush and separate skins from i)ulp, 
discarding one-half of the skins. Steam or stew the pulp and 
juice until the seeds can be easily removed by pressing the soft 
pulp with juice through a colander. Cook the skins in the water 
until tender and cut into thin strips or chop. Add sugar to the 
pulp and juice and cook until thick and of a jelly-like consistency. 
Stir frequently while cooking to avoid burning. Five minutes 
before removing from the fire the softened chopped grape hiUls 
may be added if desired. Pack hot into hot jars and seal 
immediately. 

Guava Butter. — Cook guavas until tender in just enough 
water to keep them from burning. Press through a strainer to 
remove the seeds. Measure the pulp, and for each quart of pulp 
allow three eupfuls of sugar; cook and pack hot as for apple 
butter (Fig. 96). 



a-IARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 169 

Lemon Butter. — Select four medium-sized lemons, squeeze 
out the juice and grate the rind. To this add one-half pint of 
water, one pound of sugar, and three eggs which have been beaten 
together. Mix thoroughly and cook rapidly. After about five 
minutes add a tablespoonful of butter and continue the cooking 
until a consistency such as is required for apple butter is reached. 
Care must be taken to see that the product does not scorch. Pour 
into sterilized glasses, cover with paraffin, and set aside in a cool 
dark place. 

Peanut Butter. — 

2 quarts of Spanish {leanuts 2 ounces of salt 

4 quarts of Virginia peanuts 

Roast the peanuts uniformly brown, grind, add the salt and 
grind twice again so as to have the salt well distributed through- 
out. Pack into small jars and sterilize twelve-ounce containers 
for one hour at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering) in a water-bath. 
If there is too much oil in the butter it will separate and the 
nuts will rise, leaving the oil in the bottom of the jars. The 
Spanish peanut contains a large amount of oil, therefore it is 
necessary to mix this variety with Virginia peanuts in the pro- 
portions given above. 

CONSERVES 

Rhubarb Conserve. — Wash the rhubarb, cut into small pieces, 
and allow for every three pounds of rhubarb three oranges, three 
pounds of sugar, three-quarters of a cupful of water, one pound of 
seeded raisins, and one-half pound of shelled pecans (if desired). 
Slice oranges, rind and all, wash raisins, and scald the nuts. Mix 
all together and boil over a low fire for about forty-five minutes. 
If a thermometer is used, cook to 104° Centigrade. Pour hot into 
jars and seal at once. 

Medley Fruit Conserve. — 

2 pounds of peaches \<2 pound of apples 

2 pounds of quinces 3 lemons 

IVj pounds of pears Sugar 

Wash the fruit, peel or pare, core, and stone the fruit; pass it 
through a food chopper and weigh. To each pound of fruit allow 



170 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND niKSEKVlNG 

three-quarters of a pound of sugai-; put fruit and su^^ar in 
alternate layers in a bowl, and let stand over night. Next morn- 
ing place in the preserving kettle with the pulp of lemons and 
one-half the rind sliced in thin strips. Boil until mixture becomes 
very thick. One cup of scalded chopped nuts may be added if 
desired, five minutes before removing from the fire. Pack hot 
into hot sterilized jars and seal at once. 

Plum Conserve. — 

3 pounds of Damsun plums 1 pound of seeded raisins 

(after cutting) 1 orange 

1% pounds of sugar 1 cup of shelled pecans 

Juice of 1 lemon 
Slice plums, orange and lemon, add sugar and cook until thick 
and transparent. Put nuts into mixture five minutes before 
removing from the fire. If a thermometer is used cook the 
conserve to 103° Centigrade. Pack hot into sterilized jai-s and 
seal immediately. Process pint jars for thirty minutes at 180° 
Fahrenheit in a water-bath. 

Grape Conserve. — 

1 pint jar canned grapes (1 1 orange (slircdded) 

pound sugar to <> pounds Vk cup raisins 

grapes used in canning) 1 cup pecans 

% cup grape syrup 

Cook as for Damson plum conserve. 
Fig Conserve. — 

2 pounds of fresli figs or 1% pounds of sugar 

1 quart of plain canned figs V2 cupful of pecans (shelled) 

1 orange V2 pound of raisins 

Cut all, except nuts, into small pieces and cook until thick 
and transparent (about one hour). Add nuts five minutes before 
removing from stove. Pack and seal hot. Process as for plum 
conserve. 

FRUIT PASTES 

Fruit pastes are sometimes made for home use from the fruit 
pulp which is left after some of the clear juice has been extracted 
from the fruit for jelly making. A product of delightful flavor 
may be made by combining the pulp of different kinds of fruits. 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 171 

Press the pulp through a sieve, measure, and to each pound of 
cherry, plum, raspberry^ strawberry, currant, or gooseberry pulp 
allow one pound of powdered sugar. Cook together over a low 
fire, carefully watching to prevent scorching, until it begins to 
thicken. Cooking the pulp in a double boiler for the last half 
hour of the cooking will aid in keeping the paste from burning. 
If the pulp is well boiled down it is more easily dried. Scalded 
and chopped nut kernels, crystallized orange peel, or preserved 
watermelon rind or citron can be cooked in the paste. Pour 
one-half inch layers of the rather solid mixture upon marble or 
glass slabs or platters which have been rubbed wath salad oil. 
Place where a breeze or current of air will pass over it and allow 
to dry for two or three days. 

Cut the paste into one-inch squares, roll in granulated sugar, 
and stand again in a draft for two or three days. Pack in tin 
boxes, glass jars, or paraffin-coated containers. If packed in 
layers, place a piece of parchment paper between the layers. 

Apricot, peach, apple, and cjuince pastes are made in the 
same manner, except the proportion of sugar may be reduced 
for the apple and quince, three-quarters of a pound of sugar 
being a fair allowance for each pound of pulp. These cubes of 
fruit paste make attractive garnishes for custards, fruit cock- 
tails, creams, cakes, etc. Different flavorings, such as vanilla, 
almond or peppermint, may be used in these pastes, and some- 
times harmless vegetable colors are stirred into the mass just as 
soon as it is removed from the fire. Almond flavor is fine for 
peach paste. 

A fancy pack of bands of color might be arranged as in jelly 
packing, if several different fruit pastes are made at one time. 
When nearly dry (before cutting), put the different colors and 
flavors in alternate layers until four or five layers have been used. 
Press lightly and allow to stand for one hour in a draft. Cut into 
one-inch strips, cutting through all the layers, and dry again for 
one hour. 

Store as for other pastes. 

Fig Paste. — Treat the figs with a soda bath as for preserves 
(p. 159), rinse and cook untiltender in fresh, clear boiling water. 



172 SUCCESSFUL CANNING ANi:) PRESERVING 

Drain well and pnt the figs through a food chopper or rub pulp 
through a colander. Allow one pound of sugar for each quart of 
pulp. j\lix and cook until it is a rather solid mass. Spread with 
an oiled spatula on the oiled surface of a flat dish, marble or glass 
slab, and finish drying in the sun. Three or four days will be 
required for drying. The trays should be brought into the house 
each night, and they should be protected from both flying and 
crawling insects. When thoroughly dry, roll, wrap, and pack as 
peach roll (p. 172). 

Grape Paste or Fruit Roll. — 

2 pounds grape pulp y^ cupful preserved orange peel 

1 pound powdered sugar 14 cupful preserved grape hulls 

1/0 cupful chopped pecan nuts or candied cherries 

Yo cupful preserved citron or % dozen preserved figs 
gingered watermelon lind 

The pulp left from grape jelly may be pressed through a sieve 
and used as fresh grape pulp in making this paste. The finer the 
mesh of the sieve used the finer will be the texture of the finished 
product. Cook the pulp 15 to 20 minutes to evaporate the excess 
of water before adding the sugar. Boil sugar and pulp together 
until very thick. Pour out on a flat oiled surface to dry. Allow 
to stand in a draft for 1 or 2 days, when the other ingredients 
should be finely chopped and well mixed. Then sprinkle over the 
paste and roll it tightly. Place the roll in a breeze again for 
several hours, dust with sugar, and when dried sufficiently wrap 
and pack as other fruit pastes. Chopped nuts alone might be used 
for filling this roll. Other combinations of dried fruits, such as 
raisins, dates, figs, currants, and apricots, are sometimes used for 
filling. 

Quince Cheese. — Wash the fruit, cut into quarters, remove 
core, stem, and flower. Cook the (juinces until very tender in 
water, drain and rub through a sieve. Measure and allow three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar for each pound of pulp, and boil to- 
gether mitil it is so thick that it will not quickly run together 
when a spoon or wooden paddle has passed through the mass. 
The pulp left from quince .jelly can be pressed through a sieve 
and used as fresh pulp in making this paste or "cheese." Pour 



MARMALADES, JAMS AND CONSERVES 173 

hot into hot sterilized glasses aud seal like jelly. This "quince 
cheese, ' ' when turned out of the glass, will hold the shape of the 
mould and may be sliced. 

Peach Roll. — Select ripe, soft peaches, remove the skins and 
stones, weigh the fruit and add one-fourth pound of sugar to 
each pound of fruit, place over the fire, and while cooking mash 
with a wooden spoon. When the fruit is very soft, rub it through 
a colander to insure that no hard lumps remain. Continue the 
cooking until a heavy consistency is reached. Remove from the 
pan, spread on a smooth bt)ard which has been greased, place in 
the sun and cover with cheesecloth to keep off insects. AVhen it is 
dry, sprinkle with granulated sugar, roll it up and wrap tightly 
in a cloth. It will keep for a long period of time. 

Green Tomato Mince Meat. — 

1 peck of green tomatoes 2 tablespoonfuls of ground cin- 
2^^ pounds of brown sugar namon 

2 pounds of raisins 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 

1 pound of beef suet 2 teaspoon fuls of nutmeg 

1/2 cupful of vinegar 2 cupfuls of chopped apples (if 

2 tablespoonfuls of salt desired) 

Slice the tomatoes thinly, or put them through a food chopper, 
allow to drain, cover with cold water, place over the fire, and 
boil for five minutes. Drain well, add suet, vinegar, fruit, and 
seasoning, return to the fire and allow to simmer for from thirty 
to forty-five minutes. Pack hot and process as for preserves. 

Grape Mince Meat. — 

1 quart of pulp, juice and liulls 1 quart of chopped applies (if 

1 pound of sugar desired) 

1 grated nutmeg 1 lemon 

Crush the grapes, separate the pulps and skins. Cover the 
hulls with water and boil until tender. By this time the added 
water will have mostly evaporated. Run the hulls through a 
meat grinder or chop them finely. Steam the pulps until soft and 
rub through a sieve to remove iseeds. Mix seedless pulp and juice 



174 8UCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

with the chopped tender skins, sugar, nutmeg and apples. Grate 
off one-half the yellow outside rind of the lemon and thinly slice 
the remainder of it. Add slices of lemon to the mixture and cook 
all together until it is of a smooth and thick consistency. Pack 
hot into sterilized jars and seal immediately. 

This is an appetizing sauce similar to conserves, but a less 
expensive product. The apples may be omitted when making the 
mince meat and be added at the time it is used. The texture of 
the product is somewhat better when the apples are included. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State the general standard for marmalades and the care neces.sary to 

secure each characteristic. 

2. Where is pectin found in the citrus fruits? How can it be extracted? 

How can the pieces in a citrus marmalade be prevented from rising? 

3. From what are jams made? State the standard for jams and the care 

necessary to secure each characteristic. 

4. Describe the care necessary while the jam is cooking. What caution is 

it wise to keep in mind while stirring jams? Describe carefully the 
method for testing marmalades and jams. 

5. Under what conditions would you choose to make a conserve rather than 

a marmalade or jam ? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

See Chapter XIII, page 188. 



CHAPTER XIII 

JELLY MAKING 

Description. — Jellies are made by cooking together certain 
fruit juices and sugar in the proper proportions. A good glass 
of jelly is clear, sparkling, transparent, and of a beautiful color. 
When slipped out of the glass, it holds its form and will quiver. 
It can be cut with a clean, distinct cleavage, retaining the clear 
surface and angles made by the knife. Tenderness and firmness 
are unmistakable qualities. The aroma and delectable flavor of 
a good jelly recalls the beauty and fragrance of an orchard 
or a vineyard. There are two types of jelly — the fniit jelly, 
that is made from the natural fruit juices which contain sufficient 
pectin for making good jelly, and the pectin-base jelly, which 
is usually artificially colored and has the addition of some 
flavoring. Many advocate the natural-fruit jelly in preference 
to the pectin-base, tinted and flavored with rose, mint, and 
other such flavors, because they consider the pure natural-fruit 
jelly more artistic. 

If the resulting mass is syrupy and sticky or tough and 
gummy, it fails to meet the requirements for a jelly. 

Pectin, the Properties Necessary for Jelly Making. — Pectin 
is the essential jelly-making substance found in fruit juices. A 
combination in fruit juices of pectin, acid, and sugar in the 
proper proportions is essential in order to make good jelly. The 
best fruits for jelly making are those which contain botli acid 
and pectin. The pectin, the fundamental jelly-making quality, 
does not exist in all fruits, and it is more abundant in slightly 
under-ripe fruit than in that which is fully ripe. As the fruit 
ripens, it becomes sweeter and it is believed that the pectin, 
which is a carbohydrate, is changed by the heat of the sun into 
a fruit sugar. Therefore, fruits which are not over-ripe are 
most satisfactory for jelly-making. Apples, currants, goose- 
berries, grapes, and oranges are fruits most commonly used for 

175 



176 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



jelly making. Some fruits rich in pectin do not contain acid 
and will not make jelly unless an acid is added. The (luince 
and f^ruava are examples of this. Jellies may be made from 
such fruits as cherries, pineapples, i-hul)arl), strawberries, and 
peaches if the necessary pectin is added. Pectin can be ex- 
tracted from the white part of the orano'e-peel and added to 
these juices. Therefore, a very satisfactory jelly can be made 



Fig. 96. 



Fig. 97. 




Fig. 96. — A commercial jelly strainer i)laced on a cliair back. 
Fig. 97. — A commercial jelly strainer placed on a table. 

obtaining the flavor and color of fruits which do not contain 
sufficient pectin to make good jelly. If half the fruit selected 
is ripe fruit and the other half slightly under-ripe, the ripe 
fruit will furnish the fine flavor and color, while the under-ripe 
fruit will contain the jellying property and give a better con- 
sistency to the finished product. 

Extracting the Juice. — This is easily done by applying heat. 
Fruit juice flows more readily when the fruit is heated than 
M'hen the fruit is simply crushed. Heating is necessarv also 



JELLY MAKING 



177 



to develop the pectin in the fruit. Sometimes when no pectin 
is found in the raw pressed juice of certain fruits, juices cooked 
out of the same fruit will show a large amount of it. Addition 
of acid before cooking- will also help to bring out the pectin. 




Fig. 99. — Testing fruit juice for pectin. 

The quince is an example of fruit which often requires an acid 
to be added. 

Juicy fruits should first be crashed and have only enough 
water added to allow the fruit to cook until tender. Less juicy 
fruit, of which the apple is a type, requires more water. For 

12 



178 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



%frL 



?<-^ 



11- ~~. 



LO^V 



so^ 




iO- 



;fo— t 



500— 



3— •p; 




Fi(5. 100. — A saccharometer 
floating in a 250-c.c. cylinder. 



each pound of apples use two pints of 
water and cook until the pieces are very 
tender. 

Squeeze the cooked fruit in a moist- 
ened double cheesecloth to extract the 
juice, and then strain the juice through 
a flannel or haircloth jelly-bag which has 
first been dipped into boiling water. By 
squeezing the pulp before letting the juice 
stand to drip through the jelly-bag more 
juice is obtained from the first dripping. 
Frequently the fruit juices may be ex- 
tracted a second time by adding water to 
the pulp and reoooking it. The second 
extraction is weaker in pectin and will 
require less sugar than the first extraction 
(Figs. 96 and 97). 

Test the juice for pectin and find 
whether there is considerable pectin 
present. Pour into a glass one table- 
spoonful of the fruit juice and add to it 
the same amount of grain alcohol (95 per 
cent pure), mix by turning the glass 
gently, then pour carefully into another 
glass. If the pectin precipitates in a solid 
mass or clot, it is usually safe to add a 
cupful of sugar to each cup of juice in 
making jelly (Figs. 98 and 99). 

If the pectin does not collect in this 
manner, the amount of sugar should be 
decreased. The most usual mistake made 
in jelly making is the addition of too 
much sugar, the result being a syrup 
instead of a jelly. This test for the pres- 
ence of pectin in fruit juice is not an 
'^ceurate quantitative test, but simply 
indicates whether little or much pectin 



JELLY MAKING 



179 



is present. Different juices contain varying proportions of pec- 
tin, so one can readily see wliat a risk is taken when equal 
volumes of sugar and fruit juices are cooked together to make 
jelly, using the same rule for every sort of fruit. If the pectin 
test shows a small amount of pectin, only half the volume of 
sugar should be used to each volume of fruit juice. Sometimes 
a saccharometer is used to determine the percentage of fruit 
solids present in the fruit juice and to determine from the read- 
ing the amount of sugar necessary to combine with a given 
quantity of juice to make good jelly (Fig. 100), Consider 
apple juice first after the juice has been extracted from the 
fruit by crushing, heating, and straining; cool it to room tem- 
perature. Pour some of the juice into a slender cylinder which 
is deep enough to float the Brix or Balling spindle. Read the 
figure on the spindle which appears at the surface of the juice, 
and if, for example, the reading is 8 on the spindle, then thirteen 
ounces of sugar will be the proper proportion of sugar to 
combine with each quart of juice to make a good jelly. 

The following table may be used when testing apple juice 
with a spindle to determine the amount of solids in the solution 
and the amount of sugar necessary to combine with it to make 
a jelly. Cool to room temperature before taking the reading: 



Reading of 
Brix at 20° 
Centigrade 


For each quart of juice add 
sugar 


Pounds 


Ounces 


5.0 




8 


5.5 






9 


6.0 






9.6 


6.5 






10.7 


7.0 






11.6 


7.5 






12.4 


8.0 






13.2 


8.5 






14.1 


9.0 






15.0 


9.5 






15.8 


10.0 


1 


.7 



This table is arranged for juices which have a temperature 
of 20° Centigrade or 68° Fahrenheit. The juices should never 



180 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




Fig. 101.— Jellometcr for testing fruit juice? in jelly making. 



JELLY ]\L\KINa tSl 

be tested immediately upon straining', unless they have cooled 
to room temperature. 

As already stated, iu making jellies more failures result crom 
addition of too much sugar to the juice than for all other causes, 
and if the amount of sugar can be determined success is almost 
sure. Doctor Straughn has constructed tables like the above, 
which indicate the amount of sug:ar to be added to juices when 
their density is known, and this density can be determined by 
means of the Brix spindle or saccharometer. The use of the 
Brix spindle correctly necessitates the use of the table con- 
structed for this purpose to transfer the Brix percentage density 
reading into the amount of sugar needed. This method has now 
been simplified by Doctor Straughn, who has devised an instru- 
ment, called a jellometer, with direct readings in ounces of 
sugar to be used for each (^uart of the juice, thus doing- away 
with the tables (Fig. 101). To use the jellometer it is only 
necessary to float it in the fruit juice, which has been cooled to 
room temperature. The point at which it floats indicates the 
number of ounces of sugar to be added for each pint of juice. 

Quantity of Juice Cooked at One Time. — No dif^culty should 
be found in handling eight or ten glasses at one time if every- 
thing for the complete process is conveniently arranged before 
cooking is begun. The capacity of the kettle should be four 
times as great as the quantity of juice cooked. 

When to Add the Sugar. — The time for adding sugar is of 
importance even if the sugar has been properly proportioned 
to the juice in the beginning. There is no single trick to per- 
form that will assure perfect results in jelly making, but a good, 
uniform product may easily be obtained by carefully following 
the general principles of jelly making which are outlined. The 
old method required that the sugar be added in the beginning 
of the process. The longer sugar is boiled with a weak acid, 
such as we have in fruit juice suitable for making jelly, the 
more the sugar is split or inverted into simple sugars, and the 
longer this goes on the less danger there will be in having the 
sugar crystallize out. Another method is that of cooking the 
juice and adding the sugar near the end of the process. The 



182 SUCCESSP^UL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

latter method, however, is not so good as the first, since, if the 
sugar does not all dissolve and mix thoroughly with the fruit 
juice, some of the sugar used is likely to crystallize out. After 
the jelly stands for a while these crystals may be seen through- 
out the jelly. Midway between these extremes we might choose 
a happy medium by adding the sugar just as soon as the juice 
boils. Although adding cold sugar to the hot juice stops the 
cooking by a partial cooling of the juice, there is no real virtue 




Fio. 102. — Making strawberry and orange pectin jelly, Walton County, Florida. A. 
Grating yellow peel. B. Straining juice. C. Passing white part through food chopper. 
D. Testing for finished jelly. E. Pouring jelly into glasses. 

in heating the sugar. The prolongation of the cooking, if there 
is any, is less trouble than heating the sugar when there is no 
appreciable gain. 

Cooking the Jelly. — When the proper amount of sugar is 
determined, allow the juice to boil before adding it (Fig. 102). 
Clarify the juice by skimming it before the addition of sugar. 
Add the sugar gradually to the boiling juice, stirring until it is 
all dissolved. Cook very rapidly to keep the jelly a bright color 
and the product clear. Skimming the juice after the sugar is 
added is not a good practice from an economical standpoint. 



JELLY MAKING 



183 



A thermometer will aid greatly in jelly making. If placed 
in the cooking juice it will indicate the approach of the jelly 
stage, and the cooking juice will not need to be watched veiy 
closely until the temperature of 216° to 217° Fahrenheit or 
102° to 103° Centigrade is reached. After this the juice cooks 
very rapidly and requires constant watching. The juice for jelly 
should not be allowed to simmer. All jellies should be made as 
quickly as possible when once the cooking has begun. By long 




Fig. 103. — First test shows drops of syrup. 




Fig. 104. — Finished test shows jelly flaking or sheeting from the paddle. 

cooking, the acid affects the pectin in such a way as to cause it to 
lose some of its jelly-making power. Long cooking also has the 
tendency to make the finished product dull and darker than jelly 
which has been cooked rapidly over a hot fire. 

Test the juice to determine when the jelly is finished. Take 
a small amount of juice in a spoon and cool it by gently moving 
it in the air for a few seconds and allow it to drop from the side 
of the spoon or wooden paddle. At first it will just run off as 



184 SUCCKSSFUt. (lANN'INfJ AND PRKSEllVING 

a syrup ; then, as it cooks, the drops will become heavier, and 
when the drops run together and slide off in a flake or sheet 
from the side of the spoon, leaving the edge clean, the jelly is 
finished and should be removed from the fire at once (Figs. 103 
and 104). Skimming while cooking the juice is wasteful. Be 
careful not to break the scum while testing the juice for the jelly 
stage. After a good jelly test is obtained and the vessel is re- 
moved from the fire the scum may be removed all at one time be- 
fore pouring the jelly into the containers. It is very necessary at 
this point to keep a cool head and work rapidly so that the jelly 
will not have time to cool in the pan. 

Pouring the Jelly into the Glasses. — Jelly should be poured, 
while hot, into hot sterilized glasses. Fill the glasses full. Little 
bubbles collect on the surface, and these can be removed in a 
teaspoon by running it around the top of the jelly. If po.ssible, 
allow the jelly to stand in the sun as it cools. AVhen it is firm 
the jelly will have shrunken, leaving a space for melted paraffin. 
Pour a layer of melted paraffin over the top to seal it from the 
air (Fig. 105). The paraffin will run down along the edge and 
stick more securely if a small wooden stick is carefully run 
around the edge of the jelly after paraffin is* poured on. If the 
paraffin runs down between the jelly and the glass for about 
one-fourth inch it will not be so easily slipped away from the 
jelly as it is When simply poured over the top in a thin layer. 
Another way to protect the jelly is sometimes used. A circle of 
paper is cut to fit into the glass, then dipped into grain alcohol 
or brandy and placed ov3r the jelly. The alcohol or brandy 
serves, as does the hot paraffin, to kill any mold that might have 
dropped on top of the jelly as it stood to cool. 

Covering the Glass. — Covering the glass is necessary after 
the paraffin or the dipped paper circle is placed on top of the 
jelly. Tie paper down tightly around the edge of the glass or 
put a tightly fitting cover over it. 

Labelling. — Place small, neatly printed labels half Avay be- 
tween the seams of the glass and near the lower edge. The label 
should be no larger than necessary to print the required in- 
formation if the jelly is to be sold. Too much of the product 



JELLY MAKING 



185 



is hidden when a large label is used. Generally it is not attractive 
to use brightly colored labels, because they detract from the color 
of the product. 

Storing Jellies (Fig. 106). — A bright light will cause jellies 
to fade in color and also cause them to "weep"; that is, leak 
out and spoil the label. Keep them in a cool, dark, dry place. 




FiQ. 105. — A coffee-pot is a convenient utensil for melting and pouring the paraffin. 



If a tender jelly is handled or allowed to stand for several 
months in a jar which is not hermetically sealed, it is very apt 
to "weep." To prevent this weeping, commercial concerns her- 
metically seal their jelly jars. By using the crimped crown 
cap and the hand-sealing machine illustrated in the chapter on 
"Fruit Juices" (p. 102) jelly glasses may easily be sealed air- 
tight. When the jelly is to be sealed in this manner it should 
first be allowed to cool and then have a thin laver of melted 



186 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

paraffin or a circle of paper which has been dipped into grain 
alcohol placed over the top before crimping on the cap. 

Fancy Packs. — Fancy packs of jelly may be made by packing 
two or three jellies of diffei'ent flavors and colors in one glass. 
It is necessary to allow the first layer to cool before adding the 
second, and so on. Apple jnice or orange pectin may be used for 
a base and have the different flavors and colors added. For 
instance, jelly can be made of cherry, pineapple, strawberry, 
rhubarb, and other fruits by adding the necessary pectin in the 
form of apple juice or orange pectin. A mint jelly may be made 
by coloring either apple or orange pectin jelly green with a 
vegetable coloring matter and flavoring it with the fresh mint 
or a very few drops of spirits of peppennint. 

Fancy Jellies. — Fancy jellies can be made from non-pectin 
fruits and other materials by using a pectin preparation made 
from the orange or apple and combining this with strawberry 
or other non-pectin fruits or with mint and other flavors. The 
non-pectin fruits, it will be recalled, include cherries, pineapples, 
rhubarb, and peaches. The use of one-half of the orange or 
apple pectin prepared as below, and one-half of a non-pectin 
fruit, will give satisfactory results, providing a jelly with the 
color and flavor of some desired fruit, although the latter will 
not of itself make jelly. The preparation of orange pectin is 
described and a couple of sample recipes for these fancy jellies 
are given. 

Preparation of Orange Pectin. — 

V2 pound of white portion or- 3 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice 

ange-peel 6 cupfuls of cold water 

Scrape or grate the yellow from the peel of the orange. 
Remove the remaining white portion and pa.ss it through a food 
chopper. Weigh, and for each half pound allow three cupfuls 
of cold water and one tablespoonful of lemon juice for each cup 
of water. Mix thoroughly, allow to stand for four or five hours, 
then boil for ten minutes, and cool. Add another three cupfuls 
of cold water. Bring to a boil and let stand over night. Next 
morning boil for five minutes, allow to cool, place in a flannel 




Fig. 106. — A few good glasses of jelly ready to store. 




FiQ. 107. — Students of the State Normal School at Framingham, Massachusetts, preparing 
to become community leaders in the food conservation campaign of 1917. 



JELLY MAKING 187 

jelly-bag, squeeze it to remove all the juice, and then filter the 
juice through a clean tlannel jelly-bag without pressing it. 

This pectin may be used as a foundation in making jellies 
from fruit juices which do not contain a sufficient amount of 
peciin. If the pectin is to be kept for use later, pour it into 
sterilized jars while hot, process quart jars in a water-bath at 
simmering (180° Fahrenheit) for thirty minutes; seal and store 
in a dark place. 

Strawberry and Orange Pectin Jelly. — 

1 cupful of oiango pectin 1 cupful of strawberry juice 

1 cupful of sugar 

Mix the pectin with tlie berry jiiiee and bring it to boiling, 
add the sugar, and continue l)oiling until the jelly stage is 
reached. This finishing point is indicated by the flaking and 
sheeting from tlie spoon. Skim after removing jelly from the 
fire ; pour immediately into hot sterilized jelly glasses. Cool and 
cover with melted paraffin. 

Mint Jelly. — 

1 pint of orange or apple pectin 2 drops of oil of peppermint 

1 pint of sugar 2 drops of green vegetable col- 

oring 

Heat the pectin to boiling, add the sugar gradually, and con- 
tinue boiling until the jelly will fiake from the side of a spoon. 
At this point add carefully two drops of oil of peppermint, to- 
gether with the two drops of green vegetable coloring matter. 
(This vegetable coloring may be obtained from a drug store.) 
Stir gently and pour while hot into sterilized glasses. After a 
few moments the scimi which rises to the top may be easily re- 
moved from the jelly with a teaspoon. When cold, pour hot 
paraffin over it. Place sterilized lids over the jelly glasses or tie 
a circle of white paper over each. 

Equal parts of pectin and non-pectin fruit juices combined, 
using the same amount of sugar as pectin, will usually be the 
proper proportion to use, when a fiavor and color of non-pectin 
fruit are desired in jelly. 



I8g SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1. State in your own words the standard for jelly. 

2. What do the best jelly-making fruits contain? 

3. What is the character of pectin ? What is the effect of the heat of the 

sun upon it? What effect has long cooking upon it? 

4. Describe liow to test a fruit juice for the approximate amount of pectin 

present. 

5. What is the usual mistake in jelly making? How can this be avoided? 
G. How should jellies be cooked? Why is this necessary? 

7. Describe how to determine when the jelly has cooked sufficiently. 

8. What is a satisfactory method of sealing jelly? In wiiat kind of a 

place should it be stored? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Brown, C. A., Jr., " A Cliemical Study of the Apple and Its Products," 

Bulletin 58, pp. 40, 18!I9. Agriculture, State College, Pennsylvania. 

2. Caldwell, J. S., " A New Method for the Preparation of Pectin," 1017, 

Bulletin No. 147, State College, Pullman, Washington. 

3. Cruess, W. v., and McNair, J. R., "Jelly Investigations," ■louvnal of 

Industrial and Engineerinrj Chemistry," vol. 8, pp. 417-421, 191G. 

4. Fox, Minnie C, " Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 

Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

5. GoLUTHWAiTE, N. E., " Principles of Jelly Making," Food Serie^^ No. 3. 

vol. 1, No. 15, Cornell Reading Courses, May, 1912. Published by 
New Y'^ork State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 
G. GOLDTHWAITE, N. E., " Chemistry and Physics of Jelly Making," article 
published by the Journal of Industrial atid En<iineerinfj Chemistry, 
vol. 1, pp. 333-344. June, 1909; vol. 2, pp. 457 to 462, November, 
1910, American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. $G per year. 

7. GoLDTiiWAiTE, N. E., •' Principles of Jelly IMaking," Bulletin No. 31, 

University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. 

8. Harris, Agnes Ellen, " Jellies, Preserves, and Marmalades." Exten- 

sion Bulletin No. 3. Published by State College for Women, Talla- 
hassee, Fla. 

9. McKiMMON, Jane S., " Strawberry, Blackberry, and Raspl)erry Jam." 

North Carolina Canning Club Recipes. Publis.ied by State College 
of Agriculture, Raleigh, N. C. 

10. Snow, Jenny H., " Effect of Sugar and Temperature on Fruit Juices," 

Journal of Home Economics, vol. 1, pp. 261-2G6, 1909. 

11. Farmers' Bulletin No. 900, "Homemade Fruit Butters": Farmers' Bul- 

letin, No. 758, " Muscadine Grape Syrup " ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 859, 
" Home Preservation of Muscadine Grapes." U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington. D. C. 



CHAPTER XIV 

PICKLING 

The preservation of food with salt or vinegar, either with or 
without the addition of sjjices or sugar, is commonly known as 
pickling. The predominating flavor determines the kind of pickle 
— sour pickle, sweet pickle, or spiced pickle. Green and slightly 
unripe fruits and vegetables are generally used for pickling. A 
great variety of vegetables and fruits may be kept by this method. 
Among the most common vegetables which are pickled are cucum- 
bers, tomatoes, beets, onions, carrots, martynias, artichokes, cab- 
bage, and chayotes.^ 

The method of grating horseradish or putting it through a 
food chopper and combining it with sufficient vinegar to moisten 
it is one of the simplest types of pickling. Some vegetables give 
better results if they are soaked in salt water over night or until 
thoroughly cured. This makes the tissue firmer and extracts 
water from it. Some fruits and vegetables require this special 
treatment, while others need only to be parboiled in salt water. 
By either of these methods the tissues are better prepared to 
absorb the flavored vinegar or syrup. 

Utensils to Use in Pickle Making. — Only porcelain-lined or 
granite-wear kettles should be used when cooking pickles. Acid 
will attack metal utensils and they should not be used. A granite 
or wooden spoon should be used for stirring. A perforated agate 
ladle is a convenient utensil for lifting the pieces of pickle from 
the kettle. Finished pickles should be packed into sterilized jars 
or crocks. 

Sweet Pickles. — Among the fruits especially good for sweet 
pickles are peaches, apples, plums, watermelon and cantaloupe 
rinds, cherries, grapes, gooseberries, figs, and pears. 

iThe chayote (Chayoia edulis) is rather a comparatively new vegetable. 
It is a climbing vine, resembling the cucumber in growth, although it is 
much more vigorous and prolific. The fruit is pear-sliapcd and somewhat 
corrugated, with a single flat seed. jog 



190 SUCCESSFUL CANiNlNU AND I'HESERVING 

Mixed Pickles. — Mixed pickles are made from various combi- 
nations of such vegetables as beans, caulifiower, onions, small ears 
of corn (two or three inches in length), cucumbers, and cabbage. 

Relishes. — Pickles consisting of finely, evenly chopped vege- 
tables are known as relishes ; Chile sauce, chow-chow, and pica- 
lilli are often so classified. 

Chutney. — Chutney is a hot sweet pickle originated in India. 
There are a number of other condiments made in many ways 
that belong to this class of pickle. Chutneys are of Oriental 
origin. They are served with curries, cold meats, sausage, and 
stews. 

Mangoes. — The mango is a fruit believed to be a native of 
southern Asia, but it is now grown in nearly all sub-tropical 
countries. In addition to use as a fresh fruit, mango forms tlie 
basis of most chutneys of East India type and is also canned and 
other wise preserved. The mango melon is a small round melon 
with yellow skin and white flesh. It is cultivated chiefly for 
domestic mango pickling and preserving. Often small green 
melons, burr gherkins, and peppers are stufifed and pickled. 
The term "]\Iango" is popularly used for stuffed pickles. 

Ketchup and Sauces. — When the materials to be pickled are 
finely chopped, cooked, and strained, and the resulting product is 
a more or less thick fluid, they are called ketchups or sauces. 
Many fruits and vegetables may be used for this purpose, but 
tomatoes are more generally used. 

Dill Pickles. — In making dill pickles and sauer-kraut the acid 
is produced by fermentation and not by adding vinegar. The 
lactic acid bacteria convert the sugar present in these vegetables 
into lactic acid which acts as the preserving agent. The dill is 
added for the sake of its spicy flavor. 

BRINING 

Large quantities of vegetables may be taken care of during 
the harvesting season by brining them and allowing them to cure. 
They may be finished several months later in a less busy season, 
and when vinegar, sugar, and spices are likely to be cheaper. 



PICKLING 191 

This method of keeping vegetables has been practiced since 
primitive times. Our ancestors saved much of their surplus crop 
by storing it away in brine. Sometimes this material kept well ; 
often it did not. The failure was attributed to bad luck, and the 
reasons for it were unknown. Tremendous losses in the spoilage 
of pickles in factories led to scientific investigation of this subject 
As a result valuable information has been contributed to the pub- 
lic. Otto Rahn's experiments at the University of Michigan are 
the source of much of this information. 

The causes of spoilage will be discussed later. The different 
methods used in brining and pickling may be more satisfactorily 
explained by the use of a single product; for example, the 
cucumber. 

PICKLING THE CUCUMBER 

Preparation. — It is not necessary to wash the cucumbers 
before putting them into brine, since the bacteria on the outside 
of the vegetable aid in the process, and the brine pickles are 
washed, anyway, before being eaten. This does not apply in 
the case of dill pickles. These are eaten as they come from the 
crocks. German bacteriologists recommend that a little whey 
from sour milk be put into the pickle barrel to hasten the 
fermentation. 

Brine. — Soft water should be used in making the brine. 
Water containing much iron or lime will discolor the pickles. 
Put the cucumbers into brine very soon after they are gathered. 
A good measure of salt is absolutely necessary to prevent spoil- 
age, but salt alone is not enough. The strength of the brine 
used can easily be detennined by using a salometer — a hydrom- 
eter or spindle which will show the density or strength of the 
brine by floating in the liquid (Fig. 108). The cucumbers may 
be put down in a 45 degree to a 60 degree brine. The salt 
draws out water from the vegetable tissues and toughens them 
somewhat. For this reason the weaker brine will give a 
better texture to the finished product. About one pound of 
salt dissolved in one gallon of water will cause a salt hydrometer 
to float at about 45 on the scale, which will show that it is a 
45 degree salt solution. The cucumbers should be weighted 



192 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




down so this solution will completely cover them. A 
cheesecloth may be placed over the top to exclude the 
dust and at the same time admit air. 
Brines 



Approximate, 
percentage of 


Weight of salt 


Quantity of 
water 


Degrees, 
salometer 


solution 








1 


2 ounces 


6 quarts 


4 


2 


4 ounces 


6 quarts 


8 


3 


6 ounces 


6 quarts 


12 


4 


8 ounces 


6 quarts 


16 


5 


10 ounces 


6 quarts 


20 


6 


1234 ounces 


6 quarts 


24 


7 


143^2 ounces 


6 quarts 


28 


8 


163-2 ounces 


6 quarts 


32 


9 


1 pound 3 ounces 


6 quarts 


36 


10 


1 pound 6 ounces 


6 quarts 


40 


15 


2}^ pounds 


6 quarts 


60 


20 


3 pounds 


6 quarts 


80 


25 


4 pounds 


6 quarts 


100 



From the above table it will be understood tliat the figures 
representing the percentage of salt in a solution is obtained 
by dividing the number of degrees which are read on a 
salometer by 4; for instance, to make a 68° salt solution we 
have to dissolve 68 divided by 4, or 17 parts of salt in 83 
parts of water. 

Grading. — Cucumbers should be graded according 
to size, as follows (Fig. 109) : 

Size 1 — 1 to 2 inclies — Small gherkins. 
Size 2 — 2 to 3 inches — Small pickles. 
Size 3 — 3 to 4 inches — Medium pickles. 
Size 4 — 4 inches and over — Large pickles. 

Bacteria Necessary. — Many kinds of bacteria are 
present on the surface of the cucumbers, especially if 
a little dirt adheres to them. Among the other organ- 
isms there are a considerable number of lactic acid 
bacteria. The presence of salt and lack of air in the 
brine prevent most of the other bacteria from grow- 
ing; the lactic acid organisms, however, not being 
Fig 108 restrained to as great a degree as the other types grow 
Brine hydrom- ypou thc substauces givcu off by the shrinking of the 



PICKLING 



193 




194 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

cucumbers in the salt solution and convert the sugar into lactic 
acid and gas.2 The gas escapes and can be seen in little bubbles 
on the top of the brine. The bubbles indicate that fermentation 
is taking place. The acid turns the grass greenness of the 
vegetable to an olive green, which color is recognized as being 
the correct tint for pickles. "When the frothing ceases the acid 
present in the brine is strong enough to kill most of the bacteria 
in the liquid, and fi'om this time on the pickle brine should be 
covered, as explained below. 

Spoilage Caused by Other Bacteria. — It is important, from 
the beginning of tlie process, to keep the vegetable being pickled 
weighted below the surface of the brine. If pieces protrude, the 
so-called potato bacillus will grow upon the exposed surfaces and 
cause spoilage. They grow rajiidly and may do great damage in 
a very short time. The addition of a little vinegar will destroy 
these bacteria if they are discovered before much damage is 
done. 

Test for Acid. — To determine when the brine reaches the 
acid stage, put a piece of blue litmus paper into it. If the litmus 
paper turns red, showing the presence of acid, all air should be 
excluded from the brine. This prevents the formation of yeast 
scum, which causes the spoiling of the pickles. 

Preventing Scum Yeast. — This is not difficult. Simply skim- 
ming the yeast off is not sufficient, because it will grow again 
unless the container is sealed air-tight immediately after the brine 
tests acid. The very fact that yeast grows as scum proves that it 
must have air in order to live. It cannot endure hot sunlight, 
either. The bacteria which form the acid in the brine have just 
the opposite characteristics. They grow at the bottom of the 
crock or jar, where they avoid the air and where there is no light. 

Excluding the Air. — It is necessary to exclude air, because 
air may carry in with it yeast, and the scum, which might form, 
would cause the pickles to soften and spoil. So soon as the acid 
test is obtained take care to weight the cucumbers down under the 



^Most of the gas is caused by the respiration or breathing of the living 
tissue cells of the cucumbers; a small amount, however, is produced by 
certain types of lactic acid bacteria. 



PICKLING 



195 



briue, cover the brine with a piece of cheesecloth, and then pour 
on a thick layer of melted paraffin. Place the lids on the crocks 
or jars and wrap a strip of cheesecloth, dipped in hot melted par- 
affin, around where the lid and the top of the container meet, let- 
ting- the paraffin harden and seal the opening. The paraffin is 
inexpensive and can be remelted and used year after year. Care 
sliould be taken not to pour it over the brine until fermentation 
has ceased, otherwise the gases arising from the brine will crack 
the paraffin and make remelting necessary. The containers should 
not be disturbed after they have been so sealed. One important 
characteristic of this scum is that it will not grow in the absence 




Fig. 110. — Sealing a crock with a baud of cheesecloth dipped into boilint; paraffin. 



of air, therefore the exclusion of air from the surface will entirely 
prevent the scum from forming (Fig. 110). 

Brining in Barrels. — In treating large quantities, secure tight 
kegs or barrels. These may have to be charred and cleansed well. 
It is possible in brining vegetables to commence with a lighter 
brine, but they should probably be packed in a brine not lighter 
than 60 degrees. As soon as the brine tests acid, the barrels 
can be bunged up tightly to keep out all air. Since the brine is 
likely to settle and become strong at the bottom and weak at the 
top, it is best to turn the casks or barrels over every week for the 
first few weeks. 



196 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

When these pickles are open they should be firm, good olive- 
green color and in fine condition. The great secret of pickle-mak- 
ing lies in bringing about acid fermentation quickly, and, after 
this is done, in preserving the acidity of the brine by covering 
tightly. 

SPICED CUCUMBER PICKLE 

Open the containers, weigh and .freshen the cured cucmnbers 
by allowing them to stand for an hour or two in clear, cold water. 
It is believed that tlie pickles are improved in texture (made crisp 
and firm) by dropping them into a lime bath (one ounce of lime 
to one gallon of water) for about two hours. The lime used is 
calcium oxide and can be obtained from drug stores. The color 
may be intensified by neutralizing the acid with a soda bath (one 
teaspoonful of soda to one gallon of water). If either of these 
baths is used it is necessary, immediately afterwards, to plunge 
the cucumbers into clear, cold water for one hour. Drain well 
and place in a granite kettle which has been lined with spinach 
or grape leaves, cover the cucumbers with the leaves, and pour 
over them boiling water, allow to stand in these leaves until thor- 
oughly cold, drain well, and cover with a scalding vinegar solu- 
tion (one pint of vinegar to three pints of water). Cool quickly 
and allow them to stand for three or four hours. By so treating 
with grape or spinach leaves a better green color may be obtained 
in the finished product. Place cucumbers in a fresh vinegar bath 
(two pints of vinegar to two pints of water) . Allow them to stand 
until next morning. 

Spiced Sour Pickle. — If a spiced pickle is desired, allow spices 
in the following proportion to each two-pound lot of cucumbers : 

1 ounce of stick cinnamon C> cuj)fuls of the last vinegar so- 

Vo ounce of cloves lution in which the cucumbers 

% ounce of dried ginger root ^ have been standing 

Boil vinegar and spices together for five minutes, pour over 

^ Dried ginger root, or race ginger, can be obtained from the drug store. 
The white coating on the ginger is due to the lime water in Avliich it has 
been dipped after drying to prevent insects from eating it. The coating is 
carbonate of lime. This race ginger should be dropped into boiling water 
and drained before adding it to the syrup. 



PICKLING 



197 



3n 



SC<D 







198 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

the drained cucumbers, allow to cool, aiul tlicii pack into jars and 
pour the spiced vinegar over them. 

Spiced Sweet Pickles. — If a sweet pickle is desired, make a 
syrup of the six cupfuls of vinegar solution and one and one-half 
pounds of sugar and cook together with spices for fifteen min- 
utes, pour over the cucumbers, and allow to cool over night. Next 
morning drain the spiced syrup from the cucumbers, boil for ten 
minutes, and again pour over the cucumbers, stand for two hours, 
then boil together with the pickles until they become bright and 
clear (about ten minutes), cool quickly in a covered pan, and 
when cold arrange the cucumbers attractively in jars and pour 
over them the strained spiced s^yrup. 

Cucumber Sweet Meats. — An attractive pack may be made 
by slicing the sweet pickled, medium-sized cucumbers before 
packing. Cut slices one-half inch thick, also cut a small circle 
from the center of each slice. Place a raisin or red cherry in the 
center for a garnish, arrange uniformly in the jars, strain the 
syrup in which the pickles have been plumping, and pour over 
the cucuml)ers in the jars, paddle to remove air bubbles, seal and 
process (Fig. 111). 

Plain Cucumber Pickle. — After washing the brine from the 
cured cucumbers, allow them to stand in fresh, cold water for 
three hours. Drain and cover with a weak solution of vinegar 
and allow them to stand for two or three hours. Put in kettle : 

1 quart of vinegar 1 jjound of brown sugar 

y_^ cupful of whole blaek pepper 2 tablespoonfuls of cloves 

1 or 2 pods of red pepper 1 tablespoon ful of mace 

Boil for five minutes and pour over the cucumbers which have 
been drained from the first vinegar. This amount is for one gallon 
of pickle. Pack into jars, cover with the spiced vinegar, and 
process to seal air-tight. 

Cucumber Slices. — Select medium-sized cucumbers. Peel 
and slice thinly. To each gallon of slices sprinkle one cup of salt. 
Let stand for twelve hours ; drain out the salt water ; drop slices 
into glass jars, cover with pure, cold cider vinegar, seal and 
process in water-bath for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit 
(simmering). 



PICKLING 



199 



Spiced Cucumber Salad. — 

Vegetables 
5 pounds of sliced cucumbers 

(about 2 dozen) 
Vj. cupful of cliopped onion 
2 eupfuls of sweet retl pepper 

(chopped) 
1 cupful of sweet green pepper 

( chopped ) 



Spiced vinegar 
1 quart of vinegar 
i/y cupful of sugar 
1 tablespoonful each of salt, 

powdered ginger, and nuis- 

tard seed 
1 tablespoonful each of whole 

pepper, celery seed, cloves, 

cinnamon, and allspice 



Mix the cucumber and onion and sprinkle alternate layers 
with salt, using three-quarter cupful for this lot. Let stand over 
night. Put peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one gallon of 
water) over night. Next morning drain vegetables and freshen 
for one to two hours in clear, cold water. 

Put all whole spices in cheesecloth bag, except the celery seed 
and mustard seed, which are put in loose. Add spices to the 
vinegar and boil for five minutes. Drain the vegetables well and 
pour the hot spiced vinegar over them. Let stand twenty-four 
hours. Pack, distributing the pepper well and flattening some o T 
the cucumber slices against the face of each jar. Fill jars witfi 
same vinegar and paddle well to remove all bubbles. Garnish 
with strips of red pepper or pieces of spice. Process pint jars for 
fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Sweet Pickled Cucumbers and Red Peppers. — 



12 sound cucumbers 
8 sweet red peppers 
1 cupful of brown sugar 
1 teaspoonful of salt 
1 pint of vinegar 



1 teaspoonful of black pepper 

1 teaspoonful of celery salt 

1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 

1 teaspoonful of allspice 



Cut the cucumbers in slices one inch thick. Remove the seed 
sacks from the peppers, and cut peppers lengthwise in strips one 
inch wide. Place alternate layers of each in a preserving kettle. 
Sprinkle one-half cupful of salt over them, cover with cold water, 
and let stand four hours. Strain and wash thoroughly in cold 
water to remove the brine ; now put the cucumbers and peppers 
back into the preserving kettle, mix together the sugar and sea- 
sonings, add to pickle mixture with vinegar, and cover and cook 



200 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



until tender, stirring slowly and often. It will take twenty to 
thirty minutes. Pack into jars and process as for spiced cucum- 
ber salad. 

Rummage Pickle. — 



2 quarts of green tomatoes 

1 quart of ripe tomatoes 

2 bunches of celery 
4 medium-sized onions 
2 sweet green peppers 
2 sweet red peppers 
1 quart of small green cucum- 
bers 

Put the vegetables through a food chopper, sprinkle with one- 
half cupful of salt, and allow to stand over night. Drain well 
the next morning and mix thoroughly with all ingredients. Allow 



4 taljlespoonfuls of salt 
1 quart of vinegar 
1 pound of brown sugar 
1 tablespoonful of mustard 
1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 
1 small hot red pepper 




Fig. 112. — Preparation ot vegetables lor mixed picl^les. 

to stand for from four to five hours. Pack into jars, process, and 
seal. 

MIXED PICKLES 

Mixed Pickles. — 



3 large heads of cabbage 

1 quart of vinegar 

2 pounds of sugar 

14 ounce each of cloves, cinna- 
mon, allspice and mace 



1 peck ot green tomatoes 

1 dozen medium-sized onions 

2 dozen cucumbers 

1 dozen green peppers 



PICKLING 



201 



Chop them separately and very fine. Mix all together and put 
in alternate layers of the mixture and salt. Let stand over night. 
Then squeeze dry and cover with cold vinegar. Let it stand 
twenty-four hours and squeeze as before. Mix vinegar with 
spices, add sugar, boil for five minutes, and pour over the chopped 
vegetable. Allow to stand for several hours. Pack in jars, gar- 
nish with strips of red pepper, cover with the spiced vinegar, and 
process (Figs. 112 and 113). 



1 tablespoonfiil of whole cloves 

1 tablespoonful of allspice 

1 tablespoonful of celery seed 

(crushed) 
1 tablespoonful of mustard seed 
1 tablespoonful of ground mus- 
tard 



Green Tomato Pickle. — 

1 gallon of green tomatoes 
^,4 dozen large onions 
3 cupfuls of brown sugar 
% lemon 

3 pods of red pepper 
3 cupfuls of vinegar 
1 tablespoonful of whole black 
pepper 

Slice the tomatoes and onions thin. Sprinkle over them one- 
half cupful of salt and let stand over night in a crock or enamel 
vessel. Tie the pepper, cloves, allspice, and celery seed in a cheese- 
cloth bag. Slice the lemon and chop two pepper pods very fine. 
Drain the tomato and onion well. Add all seasoning except one 
pepper pod to the vinegar, then add the tomato and onion. Cook 
for one-half hour, stirring gently at intervals to prevent burning. 
Kemove spice-bag to prevent darkening product. Pack in pint 
jars and garnish with slender strips of the red pepper, placing 
them vertically on the opposite sides of each jar. Process for 
fifteen minutes (Fig. 114). 



Mustard Pickle. — 

Vegetables 
1 pint of whole small cucum- 
bers 
1 pint of sliced cucumbers 
1 pint of small whole onions 
I cupful of string beans 
3 sweet green peppers 
3 sweet red peppers 
1 pint of green fig tomatoe& or 
i pint of cauliflowei 



Dressing 
1 quart of vinegar 
4 tablespoonfuls of flour 
1 cupful of brown sugar 
3 tablespoonfuls of powdered 

mustard 
y^ tablespoonful of turmeric 
1 teaspoonful of celery seed 
(crushed) 



202 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




Fig. 113. — A fancy pack of mixed pickles. 



PICKLING 



203 



Cut all vegetables before measuring — tomatoes iuto halves, 
cucumbers iuto slices, string beans into one and one-half inch 
lengths, diagonally or on the bias, and chop peppers. All vege- 
tables should be tender, and the whole cucumbers not longer than 
two and one-half inches. 

Put all vegetables into brine over night, then freshen in clear 




Fig. 114. — Packing pickles with paddles. (Heinz Company.) 



water for two hours. Let these vegetables stand in liquor of one- 
half vinegar and one-half w^ater for fifteen minutes, and then 
scald in same liquor. 

To make mustard dressing, rub all the dry ingredients together 
until smooth, then add the hot vinegar slowly, stirring to make 
smooth paste. Cook over pan of water, stirring carefully, until 



204 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



the sauce thickens. Then drain the vegetables thoroughly and 
pour the mustard dressing over them while hot. Mix well and 
pack into jars. Process pint jars for twenty minutes at 180° 
Fahrenheit (simmering). 



RELISHES 

Dixie Relish. — 

1 quart of chopped cabbage 
1 pint of chopped white onion 
1 pint of cliopped sweet red 

pepper 
1 pint of chopped sweet green 

pepper 
4 tablespoonfuls of salt 



4 tablespoonfuls of mustard 

seed 
2 tablespoonfuls of celery seed 

( crushed ) 
% cupful of sugar 
1 quart of cider vinegar 



Soak the pepper in brine (one cupful of salt to one gallon of 
water) for twenty-four hours. Freshen in clear, cold water for 
one or two hours. Drain well, remove seeds and coarse white sec- 




FiG. 115. — Making Dixie relish and stuffing pepper mangoes. 

tions. Chop separately, and measure the chopped cabbage, pep- 
pers, and onions before mixing. Add spices, sugar, and vinegar. 
Let stand over night covered in a crock or enamelled vessel. Pack 
in small sterilized jars (Fig. 115). 

When ready to pack, drain the vinegar off the relish in order 



PICKLING 205 

that the jar may be well packed. Pack the relish in the jars, 
pressing" it carefully ; then pour over it the vinegar which was 
drained ofit'. Paddle the jar thoroughly, to get every bubble out, 
and allow the vinegar to displace all air spaces. Garnish each 
jar with two slender strips of red pepper. Place these strips ver- 
tically on the seams in the jar on opposite sides. Cap, clamp, and 
process for fifteen minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Pepper Relish. — Take one dozen sweet gi'een peppers and 
one dozen sweet red peppers and add three large onions, chopped 
fine. Cover with boiling water and let stand ten minutes, drain, 
cover again with hot water and let come to a boil. Then let stand 
again. Drain dry and add three tablespoonfuls of salt, two pints 
of vinegar, and two cups of granulated sugar. Cook fifteen min- 
utes and pack hot in jars, and process as for Dixie Relish. Seal. 

Corn Relish, — 

1 dozen ears of corn 1 cupful of sugar 

1 head of cabbage 2 tablespoonfuls of nuistard 

3 sweet red peppers 1 tablespoonful of salt 

3 sweet green peppers 1 tablespoonful of celery salt 
1 quart of vinegar 

Blanch corn for Iavo minutes and drop into a cold bath for 
a few seconds before cutting from cob. Cook all together for 
twenty minutes. Pack into sterilized jars, seal, and process. 

Uncooked Tomato Relish. — 

1/2 peck of ripe tomatoes 1/^ teaspoonful of red pepper 

1 quart of cider vinegar 1 teaspoonful of ground cloves 
6 green peppers 4 teaspoonfuls of mustard seed 
6 sweet red peppers (yellow) 

4 medium-sized onions 5 tablespoonfuls of salt 
1/2 cupful of chopped cabbage 1 cupful of sugar 

2 teaspoonfuls of celery seed 

Scald and peel tomatoes, chop all ingredients fine, add season- 
ings, and mix well. Add the vinegar and allow to stand over 
night. Next morning pack cold into small sterilized jars, seal, 
and process. 



20G SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Sweet Pepper Chow-chow. — 

3 peeks of sweet red peppers % peck of onions 
1 cupful of grated horseradish 3 cupfuls of sugar 

5 tablespoonfuls of salt 3 ounces of celery seed 

4 ounces of mustard seed (crushed) 

Va tablespoonful of black pepper 1 teaspoonful of cloves 

3 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon 1 teaspoonful of allspice 

1 gallon of (GO-grain) vinegar 2 teaspoonfuls of ground ginger 

Sixty-g:rain vinegar is a commercial term for expressing the 
acidity of the vinegar. Its equivalent, expressed in percentage, 
would be 6 per cent acetic acid. 

Chop peppers and onions, mix all ingredients, and cook over a 
slow fire for three hours. This quantity will fill fifteen pint jars. 
This relish can be improved by adding tabasco sauce to suit the 
taste. 

CHUTNEYS 

Hot Sweets to Serve with Curries, Cold Meats, Sausage, and Stews 

B. S. Chutney. — This chutney is packed in red and yellow 
bands in the jars. These colors represent the banner of Spain, 
and for this reason it is called Banner Spain or B. S. Chutney. 

Red part Yellow part 

2 pounds of sweet Spanish Pi- 1 pint of small yellow fig toma- 
miento or 2 No. 1 cans of Pi- toes (preserved) or 

miento 1 pint of gingered watermelon 

1 pound of sugar rind or 

Juice of 4 lemons 1 pint of gingered chayote 

2 hot peppers sweet pickle 

Red Part. — Peel the peppers according to the inst^-uctions 
given for canning. • Chop sweet and hot peppers together, add 
sugar and lemon juice, and let stand in an enamelled vessel or 
crock for twelve hours. Drain off the liquor and allow it to sim- 
mer for ten minutes. Pour it over the peppers again and let stand 
for four hours. Simmer the liquor again for fifteen minutes, 
allowing the peppers to remain in while simmering. 

Yellow Part. — Use one pint of preserved yellow tomatoes, 
one pint of chopped gingered watermelon rind, or one pint of 
chayote sweet pickle. The preserved yellow tomatoes should be 



PICIO^ING 207 

kept as nearly whole as possible. If the gingered watermelon rind 
or chayote is used it should be chopped or cut into small, uniform 
pieces that will pack easih*. 

A ten-ounce, vase-shaped hermetic jar is an attractive package 
for this product. In packing, place the heavier color — red — at the 
bottom in a one-inch layer ; then place a one-inch layer of yellow. 
Continue in this manner until the jar is neatly filled. Combine 
the liquors and boil five minutes, strain, and pour it over the con- 
tents. Paddle to remove air bubbles. Cap, clamp, and process 
for ten minutes. 

The small yellow fig tomato used in the chutney recipe is the 
variety which may be used for green tomato pickle and whole 
ripe-tomato preserves. 

Apple Chutney. — 

1 pound of green sour apples 2 ounces of race ginger root 

1 pound of button onions 4 ounces of Chile peppers (or 

1 pound of raisins any Hot peppers) 

1 pound of soft brown sugar 8 ounces of salt 

1 quart of cider vinegar 1 tablespoonful of celery seed 

1 clove of garlic (crushed) 

Put the onions and salt and one cup of water in a bowl and 
cover. Renew this bath each morning for two days. 

Pare, core, and slice the apples, soak with the other ingredients 
in a pint of cider vinegar for two days, add onions, and put 
through a food chopper. Combine with another pint of vinegar 
and boil until the apples are tender. Pack in small jars, seal, 
and process. 

MANGOES 

Stuffed Pepper Mango. — Mango peppers are mild, sweet, 
yellow, and waxy in appearance. They are highly esteemed for 
pickling. Soak sweet peppers in brine (one cupful of salt to one 
gallon of water) for t wen t}^- four hours. When ready to stutf, 
take from brine, rinse in fresh water, carefully cut a circle off the 
top of each pepper, and save same, to be placed on peppers after 
stuffing. Remove the seeds and white sections. Soak in clear, 
cold water for one or two hours. Drain carefully. Stuff with 



208 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Dixie relish (p. 204), being careful not to press it in too 
tightly. Place top on the pepper and make secure by one or two 
stitches or by pinning cap in place with two or three wooden 
toothpicks. Pack as many stuffed peppers as can be placed in 
the jar without crushing. Then fill the jar to overflowing with a 
spiced vinegar. Process for fifteen minutes in quart jars. 

Spiced Vinegar. — 

1/2 gallon of vinegar ly^ tablespoonfuls of mustard 

14 cupful of grated horseradish seed 

ly, tablespoonfuls of c e 1 e r y 1 tablespoonful of salt 

seed (crushed) 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 
1 «upful of sugar 

Cloves, nutmeg, and grated onion may be added if desired. 

Green Mango Pickles. — Use tiny green nutmeg cantaloupes 
and cure in brine as for cucumbers. AVhen cured, soak the man- 
goes in cold water for two days; then scald in kettle lined with 
spinach or grape leaves. Cool, drain, and boil for fifteen minutes 
in weak vinegar. Drain and cover them with the second spiced 
vinegar for a week. After that, take the seed from them and fill 
them with the following spices : 

1 pound of ginger, soaked in lounce of celery seed 

brine a day or two, until soft (crushed) 

enough to slice 1 ounce of mace 

1 ounce of ground black pepper Vs ounce of cloves 

1 ounce of allspice 1 cupful of grated horseradish 

y^ ounce of turmeric 4 ounces of white mustard seed 

1/4 pound of garlic, soaked for 4 ounces of yellow mustard seed 

a day or two in brine, then 
dried 

A pint of chopped sweet pickles or preserved watermelon rind 
will improve the flavor and texture of this mixture for the filling. 

Bruise all the spices and mix with one teacupful of salad oil. 
To each mango add one teaspoonful of brown sugar. This mix- 
ture will fill four dozen mangoes, having chopped up some of the 
broken ones to mix with the filling. Tie them or pin together with 
wooden toothpicks, pack in jars, and cover with sweet vinegar, 
allowing one pound of brown sugar for each pint of the spiced 
vinegar in which the melons soaked. Seal and process. 



PICKLING 209 

Spiced Cucumber Mango. — Select large cucumbers and pre- 
pare them as for spiced cucumbers, and allow them to stand for 
about a week. Slice a cap from the stem end and scoop out the 
center of the pickle, fill with Dixie relish (p. 204), replace the 
cap, and fasten with wooden toothpicks. Pack into jars, cover 
with spiced vinegar (p. 208), seal, and process. 

Sweet Mango. — Large sweet pickles may be capped, scooped 
out, and filled with the following mixture : 

1 cupful of preserved citron or y^ cupful of preserved orange 

watermelon rind and grapefruit peel 

14 cupful of candied cherries Vi cupful of conserved ginger 

Fasten the cap in place, pack in jars, garnish with candied red 
cherries or orange-peel, cover with spiced syrup, seal, and process. 
This makes a delicious sweet mango. 

KETCHUP 

Tomato Ketchup. — Select red-ripe tomatoes. The extra 
juice, small and broken fruit, which, will not do for canning, may 
be used, if they are sound red. Any green or yellowish parts of 
fruit will make a ketchup inferior in flavor and color, and not 
good for market. Use whole spices tied loosely in a bag while 
cooking, and remove before bottling to prevent darkening the 
product caused by ground spices. This does not apply to red 
pepper, which helps to give a bright-red color. The pulp of sweet 
Spanish pepper or the ground Hungarian paprika may also be 
used to give color and flavor. Remove seeds from sweet red pep- 
per, chop, and add one cupful of this pepper and two medium- 
sized onions to one gallon of tomatoes before cooking. 

Cook the tomatoes thoroughly, put through a colander or sieve, 
saving all pulp, and measure. For every gallon of pulp use the 
following : 

2 tablespoonfuls of salt 1 level tablespoonful each of 

4 tablespoonfuls of sugar whole allspice, cloves, cin- 

1 tablespoonful of mustard namon, and pepper 

(powdered) '2 small red peppers, sliced and 

1 pint of good cider vinegar seeds removed 

14 



210 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

After putting tomatoes through colander, add ground spices 
and spice-bag, and cook for one and one-half hours, or until nearly 
thick enough, then add vinegar and cook until thick. Rapid cook- 
ing (being careful not to scorch the ketchup) will give a better 
color than slow cooking. The finished product should have a fine, 
bright-red color. 

Pour the ketchup at once into hot sterilized bottles. If any 
quantity is made for sale, set the hot bottles at once into a vessel 
of hot water, having a rack or false bottom in it to prevent break- 
age, put the cork stoppers in loosely, and process at boiling-point 
for thirty minutes. Drive the corks in tightly, and when cool 
dip mouth of bottle into melted paraffin, or cover stopper with 
sealing wax. 

Recipe for making sealing wax was given on page 101. 

English Mushroom Ketchup (Nice for Soups and Sauces). — 

1 quart of vinegar 1 teaspoonful of horseradish 

20 pounds of mushrooms % ounce of cloves 

1 pound of salt Vs ounce of allspice 

To each quart of liquor add 1 1 teaspoonful of whole pepper 

ounce of bruised or ground 1 sprig of mace 

ginger 2 onions 

i/o nutmeg 1 clove of garlic 

Run mushrooms through food chopper, mix salt through them, 
and let stand for twelve hours, then drain. To the liquor add all 
ingredients, boil slowly two hours, add vinegar, bottle, process, 
and seal. 

Grape Ketchup. — 

4 pounds of grapes Vi teaspoonful of cayenne pep- 

2 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon per, if desired 

1 tablespoon each of cloves and 1 cupful of vinegar 

allspices 1 teaspoonful of salt 

I'/o pounds of sugar 

Wash and stem the grapes, and steam them over water until 
soft. Put through a colander, discarding only the skins and 
seeds. To the portion which passes through the sieve add the 
spices, sugar, salt, and vinegar and let simmer for fifteen minutes. 



PICKLING 211 

Bottle and seal. Use whole spices tied in a cloth while cooking 
and remove before bottling. This will give a better color than 
when ground spices are used. For ketchup making the acid 
juicy varieties are preferred to very sweet ones. 

Cranberry Ketchup, — 

5 pounds of cranberries 3 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon 

1 pint of vinegar 14 tablespoonful of ground 

2 pounds of brown sugar cloves • -. 

^2 tablespoonful of paprika 1/, tablespoonful of salt 

Cook the cranberries and vinegar until the berries burst, press 

through a sieve, add other ingredients, and simmer until thick, 

process 15 minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (fehnmering), cork, 

and seal. 

.; -;; . 
Pimiento Ketchup, — ,,..,'- 

6 pounds of ripe, roasted, and 2 tablespoonfuls ^.„pf powdered 
peeled pimientos ginger 

2 tablespoonfuls of salt 2 tablespoonfuls of powdered 

2 pounds of sugar einnamoh .' 

1 quart lojf Miuegar 

Roast and peel the pimientos as for canning. Remove stem 
seeds, weigh, and pass through a food:it3hopp:er. Rub spices 
together, add sugar, and mix well with tiie. pepper pulp. Heat 
thoroughly and add the vinegar slowly. Ci)ok,all together until 
smooth and of the proper consistency. Pack hot into hot bottles, 
cork or cap, and seal. If the bottles of ketchup are to be shipped, 
process them 30 minutes at 180° Fahrenheit, cork or seal 
immediately. 

SAUCES 

Chile Sauce, — 

1 gallon of chopped ripe toma- % cupful of brown sugar 

toes 2 tablespoonfuls of ginger 

V2 cupful of chopped white 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

onions 1 tablespoonful of mustard 

14 cupful of chopped sweet 1 nutmeg (grated) 

green peppers 1 quart of vinegar 

V2 cupful of chopped sweet red 5 tablespoonfuls of salt 

peppers Vs teaspoonful of cayenne pepper 



212 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Peel the tomatoes and onions. Chop the onions and peppers 
fine. Boil all the ingredients except the vinegar together for two 
hours or until soft and broken. Add vinegar and simmer for one 
hour. Stir frequently. Bottle and seal while hot. 

Pepper Sauce. — Wash small cherry or Chile red and green 
peppers, pack into bottles, cover with good cider vinegar and cork. 
It will be ready for use within a few days. As the sauce is used 
more vinegar may be added to the peppers from time to time. 

Tabasco Sauce. — 

4 dozen red tabasco or Chile V2 cupful of spiced vinegar 

peppers 1 clove of garlic 

Boil the finely chopped garlic and peppers until tender, drain, 
rub through a sieve, and add to the paste enough spiced vinegar 
to make it of a creamy consistency. Bottle and seal. Onion may 
be used in place of garlic if desired. Use spiced vinegar. Recipe 
given on page 208. 

Tomato Paste. — 

1 quart of thick tomato pulp % teaspoonful of salt 

1 slice of onion (2 inches in 1 teaspoonful of paprika 

diameter) 1 tablespoonful of mixed spices 

Mix one tablespoonful of spices about as follows: One-half 
teaspoonful each of mustard seed, cloves, cinnamon, crushed 
celery seed, and bay leaf, one-quarter teaspoonful of whole black 
pepper, and one sprig of mace. 

Tie spice in cheesecloth and cook with tomato pulp in a pan 
over water until thick enough to hold the shape of a spoon when 
a spoonful of it is dipped out. Pack hot into small sterilized jars 
or flat No. 1 cans, process fifteen minutes at boiling. 

PRESERVING VEGETABLES BY FERMENTATION * 

The preserving of food products by fermentation has been 
practiced for centuries. In Europe many fermented substances 
are common articles of food. In the United States, however, 
pickles and sauer-kraut are the only foods commonly prepared 

* The recipe for preserving cucumbers, chayotes, beets, and string beans 
by fermentation was contributed by Dr. L. A. Round, Bureau of Chemistry, 
Department of Agriculture. 



PICItLING 213 

in this manner. A number of vegetables which are commonly 
preserved by canning can be fermented and kept indefinitely. 
Whenever it is difficult to obtain tin cans and glass jars, fer- 
mentation is the most feasible method of preserving many food 
products. The following procedure is recommended : 

Cucumbers, Chayotes, Beets, and String Beans.* — Cucum- 
bers and chayotes may be satisfactorily fermented by the fol- 
lowing method : Wash the fruit, if necessan^ and pack into a 
clean, Avater-tight barrel, keg, or crock. On the bottom of the 
barrel place a layer of dill and a handful of mixed spice. When 
half full add another layer of dill and another handful of spice. 
When the barrel is full, add more dill and spice. If a keg or 
crock is used, the amount of dill and spice can be reduced in 
proportion to the size of the receptacle. When nearly full, 
cover with cabbage or spinach leaves and a board cover weighted 
with stone. j\Iake a brine by adding one pound of salt to ten 
quarts of water. To each fifteen quarts of brine so made add 
one quart of vinegar. Add sufRcient brine to cover the material 
and allow to ferment. The strings should be removed from 
string beans before fermentation. In case of beets and string 
beans, also, if they are to be served like fresh string beans, 
the addition of spice is not necessary. Beets, of course, re- 
quire careful washing to remove all dirt before brining. When 
the acid test with litmus paper is obtained, seal the brine 
air-tight. 

Dill Pickles. — Dill pickles are made from fresh or salted 
cucumbers (the former are choicer, but the latter have better 
keeping qualities). Employ pickled dill seed or herb ^ and "dill 
spice," composed of allspice, black pepper, coriander seed, and 
bay leaves, in addition to the brine. 

Soak 100 cucumbers in a 30-degree brine until the brine will 
give an acid test with litmus paper. Drain and arrange in 
layers in a crock, putting in a layer of cherry or grape leaves 

'Dill is an herb of the parsley family, grown cliiefiy for its aromatic, 
pungent seeds, which are employed in the manufacture of sauces, pickles, etc. 



214 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

first, then the cucumbers, then a few cloves, the dill, a few small 
pieces of red pepper, and then the leaves. Continue until the 
crock is full. Cover with the brine which was drained off and 
to which have been added one-half cupful of mustard seed, one- 
half cupful of horseradish and one-half cupful of salt. Cover 
with a light weight and seal air-tight for winter use. 

Brining Cauliflower. — A surplus crop of cauliflower can be 
brined and used in mixed pickles later in the year when other 
vegetables mature. 

The ' ' Rice ' ' heads of cauliflower are heavier than the smoother 
heads, and are not so fine for the market, but they are very good 
for pickling. Plain tight barrels or kegs may be used. ' ' Second- 
hand" charred barrels are very satisfactory. Be sure barrels 
are clean before filling with the cauliflower. 

All outer leaves should be removed, and the stump and heads 
should be put in whole, if possible. Pack cauliflower heads in 
barrels until two-thirds full, and fill barrel with brine 
which tests 40° with a salometer. Head the barrels and bore a 
small hole (one-half inch to three-quarters inch) in the 
top and fill the barrel to overflowing with brine through this 
hole. A little brine has to be added from time to time to take 
care of any leakage. Turn barrel at end of each week for six 
weeks. To do this, bung hole up tightly and turn barrels upside 
down so the salt which has settled at bottom will be equally 
distributed again. Watch for leakage and be sure to keep cauli- 
flower well covered with brine. 

After two months the cauliflower should be repacked. Skim 
the brine, using a skimming ladle. Dip out the cauliflower and 
repack fairly tight in a clean barrel which has been scalded. 
Cover with brine testing 40° with salometer. If an instrument 
is not at hand for testing the brine, use one pound of salt to 
each gallon of water (one pint of salt to eight pints of water). 
Bung up, fill top with water to take care of leakage, and allow 
to stand about five-months or until ready to use. 

The Hollanders commence with a 30-degree brine and finish 
with a 35-degree brine. They cure in casks only,; land their 
cauliflower has a better flavor than the domestic, beeau'fe&'the^ 



PICKLING , ,215 

brine- is kept so low that they get a lactic acid cure. T)ie-«ame 
principle is followed in the cure of genuine dill pickle. 

Sauer-kraut or " Crout." — Use one to three quarts of s'alt to 
twenty gallons of shredded slaw or cabbage, or three pounds, of 
salt to each one hundred pounds of shredded cabbage will' give 
a good flavor to the resulting kraut. Remove outside leaves afid 
the hard core of cabbage. Shred the rest finely. Line tlieiveg 
with the larger leaves on the bottom and sides as you fill it. Put 
in a three-inch layer of shredded cabbage and sprinkle with four 
or five tablespoonfuls of salt. Continue to repeat the prpceiss, 
lining barrel with the large leaves. Pound it all down well until 
the cask is full and covered with the brine. The salt sooii Ex- 
tracts a considerable amount of juice from the cabbage, andvthis 
brine should rise above the slaw. Cover with the large leaves 
and a board cover to fit inside the cask. Weight this cover^pwn 
.with heavy weights so it will keep the cover level. Care sholild 
be taken not to use lime or sandstone for weights, for the aCid 
produced by fermentation attacks the lime and destroys the 
keeping quality of the brine. It is necessary that the cabbage 
be entirely covered with brine at all times. Keep in a cool, dry 
Cellar for three weeks to a month. Remove the scum and see 
that it is well covered with juice. When the weather is warm 
'the kraut will cure in sixteen to eighteen days, when it is ready 
: for use or for canning. 

It may be packed in No. 3 cans and covered with boiling 
water. Cap, exhaust five minutes, tip, and process thirty miniites 
in a hot-water bath at 212° Fahrenheit. I 

Sauer-kraut is usually made in the fall for winter use. j It 
' may be eaten raw, fried, boiled with pork with onions added,' or 
with Wienerwurst sausage and browned in oven, or cooked with 
" spare-ribs. 

'Brining Onions. — Onions may be cured by the first method 
given for brining cucumbers in a 45-degree brine (p. 192) . When 
the liquid gives an acid test the jars or crocks should be sealed 
from the air. The onions will keep several months by this 



216 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




PICKLING 217 

method, and may be used in mixed pickles later, or spiced and 
put in vinegar (Fig. 116). 

Pickled Onions. — Select small white onions and sort into 
two sizes, one-half inch diameter in one and three-fourths inch 
in other. Peel, cover with fresh water, and let stand for two 
days, changing the water on second day. Wash well and put 
into brine for four days, changing brine at end of second day. 
Take out of brine and put into boiling water. Let stand for 
ten miiuites, then put into cold water for two hours. Drain, and 
pack into jars, putting in a few small red peppers, and garnish- 
ing with sprigs of mace. Fill jars to overflowing with spiced 
vinegar, made previously, as below, and allowed to stand for a 
few days with spice-bags left in it. Process as for pickles. 

Spiced Vinegar for Pickled Onions. — 

lo gallon of vinegar 1 1/^ tahlespoonfuls of mustard 

1^2 tahlespoonfuls of celery seed 

1 tablespoon ful of salt 
% cupful of grated horseradish 

1 cupful of sugar • ^ tablespoonful of cinnamon 

Cloves, nutmeg, and grated onion may be added if desired. 

Pickling Olives." — In California, Arizona, and other states 
where olives can be grown successfully many housewives are 
interested in pickling them by household methods for home use. 

The two varieties which have given the best results in home 
pickling are the Mission and Manzanillo. The IMission holds its 
color well while being pickled, and with reasonable care in the 
extracting process yields a product which is firm and of good 
flavor. The INIanzanillo is superior to the Mission in flavor, but 
the fruit is of a finer texture and is prone to soften during 
treatment ; the color of the finished product is not so good as that 
of the Mission. 

The finest pickled green olives come from the south of Spain. 
California and Arizona lead in the marketing of the pickled 
ripe olive. On the Pacific coast the green olive is no longer 
receiving attention. 

'Note. — Directions for pickling olives obtained from Farmers' Bulletin 
200, 1907, U. S. Department of Agriculture, by W. W. Skinner. 



218 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESEIIVINU 

Fruit for pickled green olives is gathered when it has attained 
full size, but before final ripening begins. It is sorted according 
to size and quality, then washed and placed in a solution of lime 
and potash to remove the bitter taste. 

The olives, either green or ripe, should be picked into pails 
about one-third full of water, to prevent bruising, and sorted 
as to size and ripeness. The fruit is then placed in suitable 
vessels (preferably stone jars, though wooden kegs may be used 
if sterilized so that they are free from mold spores), the water 
poured off, and the fruit covered with a solution made of two 
ounces of soda lye, one ounce of lime, and one ounce of common 
salt to a gallon of water. The solution should be thoroughly 
mixed and allowed to stand an hour before using, and is best if 
made of boiled and cooled water. It should stand about two 
inches above the fruit, and if any of the olives float it is necessary 
to cover them with a board and weight. 

The time of the lye treatment varies from three to seven days, 
according to the variety, size, and ripeness of the fruit. The 
solution should be examined daily, and should the sleek, soapy 
feeling peculiar to lye disappear it indicates that the solution 
is exhausted. The old solution should therefore be poured off 
and new solution added. It should also be changed at once 
should any scum or mold appear. The fruit should be fre- 
({uently examined, always sampling the largest olives by cutting 
away a portion with a sharp knife. The progress of the lye 
toward the interior of the fruit is plainly marked by a distinct 
dark ring. When the ring has readied almost but not quite to 
the pit it is time to remove the lye and commence the washing. 

The lye should now be poured off and water added and 
renewed morning and night. The wash-water should also be 
boiled as a preventative of mold, which is very likely to develop 
at this stage of the pickling process. The fruit should be kept 
in water, as before, with the board and weight, and throughout 
the extraction, washing, and salting the vessel should be closely 
covered. It will require from four to seven days to remove all 
traces of the alkali. Washing should be continued so long as the 
fruit has the peculiar hot taste due to the presence of lye, and it 



PICKLING 219 

is well to test it with red litmus paper, which will turn blue if a 
trace of the lye remains. If the olives are still bitter after the 
washing has been completed, they should receive a second treat- 
ment with lye, followed by washing. 

When free from lye the olives are ready for pickling. Some 
use brine only or salt and vinegar mixed, others add fennel and 
thyme or coriander and laurel leaves. The fruit is generally 
pickled whole, but when desired to give a stronger pickle savor 
it is marked wdth incisions to the stone. 

If olives are to be brined, use two ounces of common salt to 
a gallon of water. The brine should be thoroughly boiled, cooled, 
and poured over the olives. The next day this solution should 
be poured off and a solution containing four ounces of salt 
should be used. If the stronger solution is used to begin with, 
the olives will shrivel. The fruit should next be treated with 
an eight-ounce brine, and, if intended to keep for some time, 
finally with a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the 
gallon. A fourteen-ounce brine, however, makes the olives too 
salty to be used without a slight soaking. 

The better method of keeping the finished product is to 
process the olives after adding the eight-ounce brine. Glass 
fruit jars filled with olives and brine, with the covers lightly 
screwed down over the rubbers, are heated to 180° Fahrenheit 
(simmering) for thirty minutes. They should then be removed 
and the covers quickly tightened. By this process the flavor 
of the olive is not injured, and if properly done the fruit will 
keep at least several months without deteriorating. 

A perfect pickled green olive is yellowish green, very firm, 
with pinkish pit and agreeable flavor. Fruit of lesser quality 
is dark in color, with meat soft and mushy, or woody and taste- 
less, these defects being caused either by age or imperfect curing. 

Pickled or salted ripe or black olives are purplish black in 
color, and dark and rather soft in pulp, with a bland flavor 
due to the oil developed in the ripening. They are processed 
in much the same manner as green fruit, as prior to pickling 
tl^eyretain the characteristic bitter flavor. Green olives are essen- 
tially a relish. Ripe olives are a wholesome and nutritious food. 



230 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Plain Mock Olives. — Mock olives may be made for home use 
from unripe plums. The plums, when just beginning to ripen, 
but still green, should be pickled in a -lo-degree brine (one 
pound of salt and one gallon of water). The brine should 
be poured, hot, over the fruit and allowed to stand for thirty- 
six hours. It should then be poured off. Place the fruit in 
a new brine and boil for one minute. Drain the plums, pack 
into jars, cover with hot brine. Seal and process pint jars for 
thirty minutes at 212^ Fahrenheit. 

Spiced Mock Olives. — One gallon of green plums soaked for 
twenty-four hours in 45-degree brine (one pound, nine ounces 
of salt and one gallon of water). Drain, place into stone jars, 
and pour scalding vinegar over them. Next morning drain off 
this vinegar, add to it two tablespoonfuls of mustard seed, and 
boil for two minutes. Pour, hot, over the plums and allow to 
stand until cold. Pack in bottles, cover with hot strained liquor, 
seal, and process as for plain mock olives. 

Pickled Mushrooms. — Steam whole mushrooms, place into 
jars, cover with vinegar, seal, and process as for mock olives. 

FLAVORED VINEGx\RS 

Tarragon Vinegar. — Bruise one cupful of Tarragon leaves, 
pour over them one quart of good apple vinegar, and allow to 
stand for from ten to twelve days. After this time strain care- 
fully through a flannel cloth, bottle, and seal air-tight. 

Celery Vinegar. — 

1 quart of vinegar S tablespoonfuls of celery seed 

1 tablespoonful of salt (crushed) or 1 quart of 

1 tablespoonful of sugar chopped fresh celery 

Heat the vinegar, add the seasoning, and pour while hot over 
the celery. Allow to cool, cover tightly, and set aside for from 
twelve to fifteen days. Strain, bottle, and seal. 

Onion Vinegar. — 

1 quart of good vinegar 1 tablespoonful of salt 

Vo cupful of chopped white 1 ta'blespoonful of sugar 

onions 

Scald the vinegar and spices, pour over the onions, allow to 
stand for two weeks, strain, bottle, and seal. 



PICKLING 221 

Tarragon, celery, and onion vinegar are delicious when used 
in dressings and served with salads. 

Root Artichoke Pickle, — Scrub, peel and scrape four pounds 
fresh artichokes, plunge them into boiling brine (one-quarter cup- 
ful of salt to one quart of water) for five minutes. Then put into 
clear, cold water for a few minutes. Drain and cover with a spiced 
vinegar (p. 208). Let stand over niglit, and pack in sterilized jars. 
Cover with the spiced vinegar and process small jars in water- 
bath for fifteen minutes and quart jars twenty-five minutes at 
180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Pickled Beets. — Cook small beets until tender, slip the skins 
off, pack into jars, cover with spiced vinegar, seal and process 
for thirty minutes (at simmering). Beets are better canned in 
water and made into pickle as desired. 

Sweet Pickled Carrots. — Boil young, tender carrots until 
three-fourths done, scrape, cut in thin slices, and pour a boiling 
spiced syrup over them, made by boiling together one quart of 
vinegar, one quart of sugar, one tablespoonful each of cinnamon 
and cloves, and one teaspoonful each of mace and allspice. Allow 
to stand over night in this syrup. Next moniing boil for five 
minutes, cool quickly, pack into jars, strain syrup over them, 
seal, and process as for all pickles. 

Spiced Green Tomatoes. — 

G povinds of small wliole green 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

tomatoes i/^ tablespoonful of cloves 

4 pounds of sugar % tablespoonful of allspice 

1 pint of vinegar V2 tablespoonful of mace 

Small green fig or plum tomatoes are suitable for this pickle. 
Scald and peel. Make a syrup of the sugar, vinegar, and spices. 
Drop in the whole fruit and boil until the tomatoes become 
clear, pour all into trays, cool quickly, pack cold into jars, strain 
syrup over them, seal and process. 

Spiced Rhubarb. — Peel and slice one pound of rhubarb. 
Sprinkle over one cupful of sugar, and let stand over night. 
Next morning drain off the syrup, add one-half cupful of sugar, 
and put over the fire. Tie in spice-bag (six whole cloves, three 
whole allspice, a bit of mace, a six-inch stick of cinnamon, and 



223 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

a two-iiieh piece of ginger root), put into syrup and boil ten 
minutes, skim out spices, add rhubarb, and cook until clear. 
Seal in small jars. 

SPICED FRUITS 

Spiced Crab Apples. — Choose round crab apples uniform in 
size; do not pare them. Make a spiced syrup by boiling to- 
gether one quart of vinegar, one quart of sugar, one tablespoon- 
ful of cinnamon, cloves, and one teaspoonful of mace and all- 
spice, add crab apples, and heat gently, being careful not to 
burst the fruit. Let stand in syrup over night, pack cold, cover 
with syrup, seal, and process pint jars fifteen minutes at 180° 
Fahrenheit ( simmering ) . 

Pickled Watermelon Rind. — One pound of watermelon rind 
boiled in one quart of salt water (one-quarter cupful of salt to 
one quart of water) for fifteen minutes. Drain well and dip 
into a cold bath until the fiavor of salt is gone. Drain care- 
fully and stand in lime water over night (two ounces of lime to 
one gallon of water). Drain next morning- and cook rapidly m 
a syrup made by boiling together one pound of sugar, one pint 
of water, one pint of vinegar, one teaspoonful each of cloves, 
cinnamon, allspice, and one-half teaspoonful of mace. Cook until 
rind becomes clear and transparent. Cool before packing, proc- 
ess as for other sweet pickles, and seal. 

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sour). — Select under-ripe cantaloupe, 
peel, cut into sections. Place two pounds in stone jar and pour 
over a boiling mixture of one quart of vinegar, one pint of 
water, adding spices tied in spice-bag: 

114 teaspoonfuls of mace teaspoonfuls of cloves 

2 teaspoonfuls of cinnamon I pound of sugar 

Next day pour vinegar off and bring to boil. Add sugar and 
drop in the spices and sections of fruit and boil until trans- 
parent. Pack fruit in jars and boil vinegar mixture for fifteen 
minutes longer to make a heavier syrup. Pour it over the fruit, 
cap jars, and process pints for fifteen minutes. 

Cantaloupe Pickle (Sweet). — Soak one and one-half pounds 
of rind for three hours in lime water (two ounces of lime to one 
gallon of water). Drain and soak in fresh water for one hour. 



PICKLING 223 

Make a syrup bj^ boiling together one quart of water and one 
pint of sugar, add well-drained rind, and cook rapidly for thirty 
minutes. Allow to stand over night. Next morning add one 
cupful of sugar, one cupful of vinegar, and spice-bag (one 
tablespoonful each of cinnamon, cloves, and allspice, and one- 
half tablespoonful of mace). Cook until rind is transparent 
(about one hour). Cool and pack in small jars. Cover with the 
dtrained syrup and process. 

Sweet Pickled Chayote. — 

2 pounds sliced cliayotos i^ ounces of whole cloves 

2 pounds of sugar % ounce of dried ginger root 

1 ounce of stick cinnamon 

Select half-grown chayotes, a green variety preferred, and 
slice thinly cross-wise. The slices from the smaller end of each 
fruit will make the most attractive pickle. The larger pieces 
may be chopped and used instead of cabbage in Dixie relish 
(p. 204). 

The chayotes must first be cured in a 45-degree brine (about 
one pound, nine ounces of salt to one gallon of water). Place 
the sliced chayotes in a crock, cover them with the brine, and 
weight down with a plate. As soon as the brine around the 
chayotes will give an acid test with litmus paper (that is, will 
turn blue litmus paper pink) the chayotes are ready to be 
pickled. This will require three to five days. 

If not made up into pickle at once it will be necessary to seal 
them air-tight. This can be done by sealing the jar with a 
layer of cheesecloth dipped in melted paraffin over which the lid 
is placed and sealed with strips of cloth which have been dipped 
in melted paraffin. The cured vegetable will keep as long as kept 
air-tight, but the color will not be as good as if finished at once. 

Freshen the brined chayotes by standing in cold water for 
about two hours. Drain and let stand for two or three hours in 
a weak vinegar solution (one cupful of vinegar to three cupfuls 
of water). Place in stronger vinegar solution (one and one-half 
cupfuls of vinegar to one and one-half cupfuls of water) for a 
couple of hours. Then add the sugar and the spices, which are 
tied up in cheesecloth bags, to this solution. Cook the chayotes 



324 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

in this syrup until clear and transparent. Let stand until cold 
or over night in the syrup so that the slices will plump. Cut a 
tiny circle from the center of each slice of chayote and garnish 
with circles of sweet red pepper. Pack in jars, pour over the 
strained syrup, and process like other pickles. 

Cucumber rings are sometimes garnished and packed in this 
manner. 

Sweet Pickle Figs. — 

5 quarts of figs 1 quart of sufjar 

1 quart of water 1 tablespoonful of cloves 

1 pint of sugar 1 teaspoonful of allspice 

1 pint of vinegar 1 teaspoonful of mace 
1 tablespoonful of cinnamon 

First, cook five quarts of figs until tender in about a 80- 
degree syrup (one quart of water to one pint of sugar). 

When figs become tender, add one quart of sugar, one pint 
of vinegar, one tablespoonful of cinnamon, one tablespoonful of 
cloves, one teaspoonful of allspice, and one teaspoonful of mace, 
and cook until figs are clear and transparent. Allow them to 
stand in this syrup over night. On the following morning pack 
the fruit into jars, cover with syrup. Sterilize pint jars in 
water-bath for fifteen minutes at boiling or thirty minutes at 
180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

Spiced Currants and Gooseberries. — 

7 pounds of fruit 3 tablespoonfuls of cinnamon 

1 pint of vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls of cloves 

5 pounds of sugar 

Make a syrup of the sugar, spices, and vinegar. Cool, add 
the fruit, and cook rapidly for from twent}' to twenty-five 
minutes. Pack into jars while hot and seal at once. 

Spiced Grapes. — Pick the grapes from the stem, wash and 
slip the pulp from the skins, steam the pulps over a vessel of 
hot water or in a doul)le boiler until they can be rubbed through 
a coarse sieve to remove the seeds. Combine pulp with skins 
and weigh. To each seven pounds allow the same proportions 
of sugar and spices as for currants and gooseberries given above. 
Cook all together until very thick, pack while hot, and seal at once. 



PICKLING 235 

Damson Plums and Cherries. — These fruits may be spiced 
in the same maimer as currants and gooseberries (p. 224). 
The addition of one teaspoonful of mace and two teaspoonfuls of 
allspice will improve the Havor. After they are cooked in the 
syrup until tender, lift them out and cook syrup fifteen minutes 
longer, then pour over the fruit and allow to stand until cold. 
Pack, seal, and process pint jars fifteen minutes at 180 "^ Fahren- 
heit (simmering). 

Sweet Pickled Peaches. — 

pounds of fruit 4 ounces of stick cinnamon 
3 pounds of sugar 2 ounces of whole cloves 

1 pint of water 1 ounce of <>inger 
1 pint of vinegar 

Select firm clingstone peaches. It is better to have them 
under-ripe than over-ripe. Peel by either method given under 
canning peaches (p. 126), and drop at once into a syrup which is 
made by boiling together the sugar and water, and boil for 
fifteen minutes. Cool quickly and allow to stand for from two 
to three hours. Drain off the syrup, put vineg-ar and spices into 
it, boil for fifteen minutes, then add the peaches and cook to- 
gether for half an hour. Let stand over night. Next morning 
drain off the syrup, boil for twenty minutes, add the peaches, and 
continue cooking for fifteen minutes longer. Cool again and let 
stand for two hours or over night, then boil all together until 
the peaches are clear and tender. Pack peaches cold into jars, 
garnish with snips of stick cinnamon, cover with strained syrup, 
seal, and process quart jars for twenty minutes at ISO"' Fahren- 
heit (simmering). 

Spiced Pears. — 

7 pounds of hard pears ^2 lemon (rind) 

31/2 pounds of sugar yo ounce of whole cloves 

1 pint of vinegar y^ ounce of wliole allspice 

1 ounce of ginger root 2 ounces of stick cinnamon 

Cut pears in half, remove the seeds, and pare. Make a 
syrup of vinegar and sugar, tie the spices in small pieces of 
cheesecloth and add them to the syrup. When this mixture 
begins to simmer, add the pears and lemon rind and bring to the 
boiling'-point, cool quickly, and allow to stand over night. The 
15 



22G SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

next morning drain off the syrup from the pears into a porcelain- 
lined or agate kettle, bring the syrup to boiling-point and pour 
over the pears, allow to stand over night again. Next day drain 
and heat the syrup as before, repeating this for four or five con- 
secutive days, then boil the syrup down until it is just enough 
to cover the fruit, add the fruit to the hot syrup and boil for 
thirty minutes, pack the fruit into jars, garnish with snips of 
cinnamon, cover with the syrup, seal, and process for thirty 
minutes at 180° Fahrenheit (simmering). 

The pears may be finished in one day by boiling them in 
the syrup until the fruit is clear; remove the fruit and boil the 
syrup down to 221° Fahrenheit, add the fruit, reheat it, and 
finish as above. The fruit is less rich if done in this way. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by "pickling"? 

2. What is tlie secret of pickle-making? 

3. Why should some vegetables be soaked in salt water until cured and 

others parboiled in salt water before the flavored vinegar or syrup 
is added? 

4. What strength brine would you use if you were preparing it for cucum- 

ber pickles? How approximate this if you have no hydrometer at 
hand ? 

.'). While the pickle is in brine, wiiy should the container be covered only 
with a clotli so as to admit air? 

(i. At what stage in the prei)aration of pickles are bacteria useful? Ex- 
plain their action. How are these introduced into the brine? 

7. What is the value of the presence of an acid in the brine? How can 

you test for it? 

8. Why should the air be excluded as soon as the acid is formed in the 

brine? 
0. Why is it well to turn the kegs or barrels containing pickles in brine? 

10. Why is a lime bath sometimes used? 

11. Why is a soda bath sometimes used? 

12. If either bath is used, what must necessarily follow? 

13. What is the standard for the finished product? 

14. Give an outline of the preparation of olives. 



PICKLING 227 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Crawford, R. F., " Report on the Dutch Brined Vegetable Industry," 

British Board of Agriculture, 1902. Published by Darling & Son, 
London. 8 pence. 

2. " Creole Cook Book," 1914. The Picayune, New Orleans, La. By mail, 

$1.25. 

3. Creswell, M. E., and Powell, Ola, " Pimientos," revised 1918, Cir- 

cular No. A-84, States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 

4. Fox, Minnie C, " Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 

Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

5. Hoffman and Evans, " The Uses of Spices as Preservatives," article in 

the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. Published by 
the American Chemical Society, Easton, Pa. $G a year. 

6. Keoleian, Ardashes H., " Oriental Cook Book," 1913. Published by 

Sully & Kleinteich, New York City, N. Y. $1.25. 

7. Powell, B. E., " How to Keep Brine Pickles," article in the Good 

Housekeeping Magazine of August, 1914. Published by Good House- 
keeping Magazine, 119 West Fortieth Street, New York City, N. Y. 
$1.50 a year. 15 cents a copy. 

8. Rahn, Otto, article on " Pickling." Published by the Canning Trade, 

Baltimore, Md. 

9. Richardson, Clifford, " Spices and Condiments," Bulletin No. 13, part 

2, 1887. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry. 

10. Round, L. A., and Lang, H. L., " Preserving of Vegetables by Salting 

and Fermenting," Farmers' Bulletin No. 881, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 1917. 

11. Shinkle, Charles A., "American Commercial Methods of Manufac- 

turing Preserves, Pickles, Canned Goods, etc.," 1912. Published 
by C. A. Shinkle, Menominee, Mich. $10. 

12. Skinner, W. W., " Pickling Olives and Mock Olives," Farmers' Bul- 

letin No. 296, 1907, U. S. Department of Agriculture (Experiment 
Station Work). Can be procured from the Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5 cents. 

13. Powell, Ola, and Creswell, M. E., Circular No. A-81, " Canning, Pre- 

serving and Pickling," States Relations Service, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

14. Calvin, H. M., and Lyford, C. A., " Preparation and Preservation of 

Vegetables," Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

15. Cruess, W. v., " Tomato Paste," circular published by University of 

California, Berkeley, Cal. 



CHAPTER XV 
DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 

GENERAL METHODS 

The drying of foods ]ias been practiced since the beginning 
of civilization. 

Drying is one of Nature 's own processes in the drying of 
grains, such as wheat, oats, corn, and many other seeds. Nature's 
methods have been improved by the application of artificial heat, 
which hastens the process. This is used to dry perisha])le products 
which under natural conditions coidd not be kept. Modern meth- 
ods of evaporating products afiford less opportunity for the 
accumulation of dirt and for fermentation. 

Foods prepared in this way are less bulky and require less 
space for storage than in the natural condition. First-grade dried 
fruits and vegetables are about as expensive as the same product 
would be if canned, but they are lighter in weight, require 
less space in shipping, and can be packed in less expensive 
containers. 

The first commercial products which were put on the market 
were inferior in quality because the packages were not only unsan- 
itary but the products had often lieen injured by dust and insects. 
This led to a general depreciation in the value of dried foods. 

Insufificient drying is one of the commonest causes of trouble. 
Some laws require that marketable dried fruits shall contain not 
more than 27^2 per cent of water, and this limit practically elimi- 
nates that particular trouble to great advantage of the industry 
as a whole. If a larger proportion of water remains, the fruit 
tends to discolor, mold, or sour. A bushel of green apples, for 
example, weighs about fifty pounds, and should make seven or 
eight pounds of white stock, four pounds waste, five-sixths of the 
fruit being water. Apples when dried still contain 25 per cent 
of water. 
228 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 329 

The comparative merits of the open-air "drying" and the 
indoor ' 'evaporating'" processes hinge entirely upon the matter of 
climate. In California open-air drying is almost universally 
practiced, as the sections where fruit is dried are practically free 
from excessive moisture and rain during the entire drying season. 
In other parts of the United States the evaporating process has 
superseded open-air drying for commercial purposes. The results 
of the evaporating process are obtained in a shorter length of 
time, and the product has better keeping qualities and conse- 
quently commands a higher price than sun-dried fruits from the 
same localities. 

The evaporating process industry in the United States began 
about 1868. It is said that in Wayne County, New York, alone, 
more than 2000 small evaporators are used right in the orchards. 
The dry kiln, which is most in favor now among the larger pack- 
ers, consists of a drying bin with a slat floor built over a furnace. 
The fruit is spread on the floor and dried by the heat rising 
through and around it. 

A type of homemade dry kiln used in some sections of the 
country can be made as follows : Walls of brick or stone are built 
up a foot or two above the ground, with the front end left open 
for a fire door. The size of this kiln depends upon the amount of 
material to be dried. ]\Iany farm kilns are four feet wide and 
eight to ten feet long. At the back end a flue is built, and this 
should extend four or five feet above the top of the kiln. Iron 
bars are placed across the top of the structure, and sheet iron or 
tin placed over these. A layer of clay mortar is spread over the 
whole surface to the depth of about two inches. After applying 
the mortar a fire should be started in the furnace to bake the clay. 
The firing should be done with a slow fire, and any cracks formed 
during the baking should be closed up with thin mortar. The 
material to be dried on this type of a kiln is placed on large metal 
trays to the depth of two or three inches. Only a few hours are 
required for the drying process. Most any fruit or vegetable can 
be dried on this type of drier, but those most commonly dried 
are apples, peaches, cherries, and sweet corn. 

A description of the apple driers used for vegetable drying in 



230 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Western New York is given in Farmers' Bulletin No. 291, "Evap- 
oration of Apples." Other interesting descriptive matter and 
illustrations may be found in Agricultural P^xperiment Station 
Bulletin No. 131, by J. S. Colwell, State College of Agriculture, 
Pullman, Wash. The chief use of the kiln evaporator in New 
York, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Virginia, Washington, and Ar- 
kansas is for the drying of apples, and many long-established 
plants had never dried anything else until 1915, during which 
time many evaporators in IMonroe and Wayne counties, New 
York, ran full capacity in drying carrots, cabbage, onions, celery, 
and Irish potatoes for the French War Department. These crops 
when dried were mixed together under a certain formula and 
placed in fifteen-pound cans, which were sealed and shipped to 
the allied army, where they were used in making soup and stews 
for the soldiers. 

This great demand for concentrated products has stimulated 
investigations and experimental work in drying foods. The 
Bureau of Chemistry in the United States Department of Agri- 
culture has obtained some most interesting results by the use of 
an electric fan. It was found that products were dried rapidly 
and retained a good color by the use of the fan. This indicates 
the value of currents of air in drying. In any system of drying 
there needs to be considered the circulation of air as well as the 
application of heat. 

Indoor Drying. — The indoor methods of drying have been 
found necessary in large parts of the United States now on ac- 
count of the moisture present in the atmosphere. The following 
methods of indoor drying are sometimes used commercially : . 

1. The fruit is enclosed in a chamber where heated air is cir- 
culated over and through the fruit until 70 to 75 per cent of the 
water is extracted. 

2. Vacuum driers are sometimes used. The evaporation is 
more rapid, but the color of the product is affected. If sulfuriz- 
ing is applied a better color may be preserved. 

3. Hydraulic pressure for certain products has been found 
to be a most effective method, but is not generally used in America. 

French Methods of Vegetable Drying. — The following gives 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 231 

two French methods of drying- green vegetables, which form the 
basis of a large industry in that country, some experiments with 
which are under way in the United States : 

1, The greens are carefully selected, trimmed, and put into a 
hurdle of coarse linen cloth. This hurdle is set up in a chamber 
which is w^armed by means of hot air. The heat circulates through 
pipes, running back and forth through the chamber of the evapo- 
rator, at a temperature of 95° to 113° Fahrenheit, or 35° to 45° 
Centigrade, being regulated according to the condition of the 
greens. The heat should be raised gradually to prevent a loss of 
flavor and color. The advocates of this process claim that the 
heat is more evenly distributed and the temperature more uni- 
form, avoiding danger of scorching the fruit. 

2. Another operation of drying green vegetables is carried on 
in France most successfully by a gradual pressing while drying 
the product. The volume of greens lessens four-fifths by the use of 
a powerful working hydraulic press. The greens are laid into two 
strong iron boxes which are placed at the end of the mounting 
beam of the press and a strong, close-fitting pounder presses 
them. By this process a cabbage head of very great size may be 
reduced to easily fit into a letter envelope ; when again moistened 
and prepared it will almost fill a half-bushel measure. Many 
plants treated by this method will recover their original form and 
color when again soaked in water. Some vegetable mixtures are 
pressed into forms like cakes of chocolate and simply >vrapped 
in a paper or put into tin pails. Dried spinach is packed in tin 
boxes, and a vegetable mixture for soups is sold in small card- 
board boxes. If moisture is kept away from these products they 
will keep any length of time without losing their value. Potatoes, 
carrots, peas, and beans all may be preserved in the same way. 

Sunlight Drying. — The simple method of exposure to sunlight 
was practiced universally until recently. In California and other 
sections, which are free from excessive moisture, open-air drying 
is still extensively employed. The fruit is cleaned, cut, then 
placed cut side up on wooden trays, about three by seven feet in 
size, sterilized with sulfur fumes, and placed in the sunlight 
for five days, or until sufficiently dry. 



232 



SUCCESSFUL CANNINC AND TKESERVING 




Fig. 117. — Drying raspberries. 




Fig. 118. — A homemade drier. 



DRYING FKUITS, VEUETABLES AND HERBS 233 

It is important to protect drying fruits from the rain, dew, 
dust, and insects. 

Placing it in a screened rack or under glass or mosquito 
netting will protect it from Hying insects, and crawling insects 
may be kept away by standing the racks or table legs in pans 
of water (Fig. 117). The drying can also be expedited by a 
proper arrangement of the fruit on the trays. It should always 
be placed in single layers, because piling it up prolongs the dry- 
ing process. Evaporation of the water diminishes the bulk, so 
that later the contents of several trays may be put on one. This 
simplifies the amount of liandling. During the first two days 
the pieces of fruit sliould be turned several times to aid in the 
process of drying. This is especially true of large fruits, such as 
peaches, pears, and apples. Simple devices for drying fruits can 
easily be made. Unless the weather conditions are ideal the 
product dried in the sun is liable to become discolored and moldy. 
This method of drying requires considerable labor. 

DRIERS OR EVAPORATORS 

Vegetables and fruits can be dried in an oven, in trays or racks 
over the kitchen stove, or in a specially constructed drier. There 
are small driers on the market which give satisfactory results. 
The small cook-stove driers or evaporators are small, oven-like 
structures, usually made of galvanized sheet iron, or of wood and 
galvanized iron. They are of such a size that they can be placed 
on the top of an ordinary wood or coal range or a kerosene stove. 
These driers hold a series of small trays on which fruits or vege- 
tables are placed after being prepared for drying. Portable 
outdoor evaporators are especially convenient when it is desired 
to dry as much as ten bushels of fruit or vegetables per day. They 
are usually constructed of wood, except the parts in direct contact 
with the heater. The homemade dry kiln used in some sections of 
the country can be cheaply and easily made (p. 229). 

A Homemade Drier (Fig. 118). — Make a frame about thirty- 
six inches long and eighteen inches wide, which will hold three 
movable shelves. The frame of the shelves or trays is made of two 
pieces of wood, one inch by eighteen inches, and two pieces, one 



234 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



inch by thirty-six inches, and is covered with white cheesecloth or 
pieces of flour sack which have been washed thoroughly. Place 
these trays about twelve inches apart in the; framework of the 
drier. Stretch wire nettin": or white mosquito netting over the top 
and sides to keep away the flies and insects. Supports made of 
nails or pieces of metal and placed at the corners of the bottom 
of the frame will pennit its lieing used on the back of the stove 
in damp, cloudy weather (Fig. 118). 




Fig. 119. — This community drier was built and used by summer school students 
at State Normal College, Greensboro, N. C. 

The work was supervised by the Assistant State Home Demon- 
stration Agent. This drier holds fourteen bushels of fresh ma- 
terial and will accommodate twenty-eight bushels after the first 
entry of foodstuff is half dry. 

Three or four progressive farmers in a community might haul 
their own timber to build a small house, using the Thermos or 
fireless cooker principle, that is, allowing a space of three or four 
inches between the w^alls of the house to be filled with sawdust. 
This holds the heat and relieves the necessity of a constant watch 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 235 

over the fire. The furnace shoukl be placed at the opposite end 
from the door and a stove pipe run from furnace-end to the door- 
end and back with sufficient elevation to cause good draft. A 
drier of this size and type should, with good management, dry 
from four to six bushels a day, and should pay for itself in one 
season. Wet weather has no effect on this type of drier, which 
gives it additional value. 

The Building Plan of House: 

Tlie house is C x 12'. 
The uprights in front are G' 8". 

The uprights in back are 0' 2" to give roof 0" fall for watershed. 
Doors are fastened to 2" x 4" uprights in front. 
Doors are 2' 8" x 6' 8". 

The furnace is 15" x 15" x 4' covered with two sheets (24 gauge) black 
sheet iron 2" apart — air space to prevent fire. 

The radiation is secured by ordinary stove pipe attaclied to furnace. 

The Heating of House. — The house is heated after the plan 
of a tobacco barn — a small furnace of roek or brick is built at one 
end and a stove pipe carries the radiation to the opposite end of 
the house and back, with an elevation of two feet above the 
furnace. This stove pipe may extend outside of the house a 
sufficient space to escape the eaves and an elbow and three or four 
joints may act as a chimney, or, if a chimney is preferred, it may 
be built at a cost of $4 or $5 additional. 

The Plan of Trays. — There are three lattice partitions in 
the house, making four sections 32 inches wide for diying trays. 
Twelve inches above the sill place across a piece 2X4 inches, on 
which the centre uprights, 2X4 inches, and the back upright, 
2X4 inches, rest. (Put upright pieces the 2-inch way.) The 
tray bearers, 1X3 inch strips, are fastened to the uprights. The 
space between the tray bearers is filled with 2-inch strips to act 
as guides for the trays and to force the draft to circulate between 
the trays. If these spaces are left open, it will act as a flue and 
carry off the heat. The sides of the trays are % X 3 inch 
lumber, making the tray 3 inches deep. The bottom of the tray 
is made of lattice strips % X 1% inches with 1 inch space between 
the strips running lengthwise. The trays have a centre partition 
to support the bottom laths and cheesecloth is used to cover the 
laths. There are 8 inches from the top of one tray to the top of 



23G 



SUCCESSFUL CANN1N(^ AND PRESERVING 



the next. The trays move on the bearers like a bureau drawer. 

A small opening must be left at to[) of house just above doors — 
an outlet for steam. A 3-inch opening at front foundation must 
be planned to let in cool air to keep the fruit from sweating. 

Homemade Cook-stove Drier (Fig. 120).^ — A drier that can 
be used on a wood or coal range or a kerosene stove can be easily 
and cheaply made. Dimensions : Base, 2-4 X 15 inches ; height, 36 
inches. A base six inches high is made of galvanized sheet iron. 

A 

B 




Fig. 120. — A. Homemade cook-stove drier. B. Sectional view showing the passage 
of the heated air. 

This base slightly flares toward the bottom and has two small 
openings for ventilation in each of the four sides. On the base 
rests a box-like frame made of one or one and one-half inch 
strips of wood. The two sides are braced with one and one-quarter 
inch strips which are flush with outer side and extend on inside 
so as to form cleats on which the trays in the drier rest. These 
are placed at intervals of three inches. The frame is covered with 
tin or galvanized sheet iron, wood strips, or canvas. This is 
tacked to the wooden strips of the frame. The door is fitted on 
small hinges and fastened with a latch. It opens wide so that the 
trays can be easily removed. The bottom in the drier is made of 
a piece of perforated galvanized sheet iron. Two inches above 
the bottom is placed a solid sheet of galvanized iron which is 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 237 

three inches less iu length and width than the bottom. This sheet 
rests on two wires fastened in the corners of the drier. This 
prevents the direct heat from coming in contact with the product 
and serves as a radiator to spread the heat more evenly. 

The first tray is placed three inches above the radiator. The 
trays rest on the cleats three inches apart. A drier of the given 
dimensions will hold eight trays. The frame of the tray is made 
of one-inch strips, on which is tacked g-alvanized screen wire, 
which forms the bottom of the tray. The tray is 21 X 15 inches, 
making it three inches less in depth than the drier. The lowest 
tray, when placed in the drier, is even with the front, leaving 
the three-inch space in the back. The next tray is pushed to the 
back, leaving a three-inch space in the front. 'I'lie other trays 
alternate in the same way. This permits the liot currents of 
heated air to pass around and over the trays. A ventilator open- 
ing is left in the top of the drier through which the moist air 
may pass away. 

The principle of construction is that currents of heated air 
pass over the product as well as up through it, gathering the 
moisture and passing away. The movement of the current of air 
induces a more rapid and uniform drying. The upper trays can 
be shifted to the lower part of the drier and the lower trays to 
the upper part as drying proceeds, so as to dry the product uni- 
formly throughout. 

In order to secure the best result of evaporation it is neces- 
sary to run the temperature as high as possible without injury to 
the fruit, and to keep the air in rapid circulation throughout the 
chamber. It is under these conditions that the slight chemical 
changes in perfectly evaporated fruit take place. The albumin, 
instead of being slowly dried, is coagulated and greatly assists in 
the preservation of the fruit with the richness and flavor it 
possessed in its natural state. 

It is important to know the temperature of the heat in the 
drier, and this cannot be determined very accurately except by 
using a thermometer. An inexpensive thermometer reading de- 
grees from 100° Fahrenheit to 200° Fahrenheit, or thereabout, 
can be suspended in the drier. If a thermometer is not used the 
greatest care should be given to the regulation of the heat. The 



238 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

temi^erature in tlie drier rises rather quickly, and the product 
may scorch unless close attention is given. 

DRYING FRUITS 

The dried fruits are not only important foods for the house- 
hold, but because they contain valuable food material in concen- 
trated form they are convenient foodstuff for the traveller and 
explorer. 

In very dry climates fruits are usually dried in the sun. Most 
fruits dried in the sun discolor unless especially treated. For 
drying fruits in small quantities for home use the drier is more 
satisfactory. On very hot, dry days fruit may be dried in the sun 
until surface begins to wrinkle, then finished in the drier. Only 
fresh ripe fruits should be used. Ripe fruits dry more quickly 
tliaii unripe and retain a better color. 

The ideal moisture content of dried fruits is about twenty-five 
per cent. The ability to judge accurately as to when the fruit has 
reached the proper condition for removal from drier can only be 
gained by experience. When sufficiently dried it should be so 
dry that it is impossible to press water out of the freshly cut end 
of the pieces, and will not show any of the natural grain of the 
fruit on being, broken and yet not so dry that it will snap or 
crackle. It should be leathery and pliable. 

Before spreading fruit on the trays of the drier line the tray 
W'ith wrapping paper or cheesecloth. There is a possibility of the 
acid of the fruit acting upon the zinc. After drying, cool quickl}^, 
as fruit when cooled slowly shrivels and looks unattractive. 

Apples. — It is not advisable to dry early varieties of apples, 
because they lack finnness of texture. The fruit must be carefully 
pared and cored, with all blemishes removed. Sometimes, in 
commercial plants, after the apples are sliced they are subjected 
to the fumes of burning sulfur to bleach them and to prevent 
further discoloration. This practice is not advisable for home use. 

Apples are often sliced in rings, one-quarter of an inch thick, 
or they are quartered. The rings dry more quickly than the 
quarters (Fig. 121). Arrange the slices in single layers on the 
trays. Place these in the sun or in an evaporator until the 
apples are dry. If sunlight drying is practiced the apples should 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 



239 



be brought indoors every iiiglit and each morning returned to 
the sun until the apples are dry. Usually this process will 
require three or four days. In the evaporator only four to 
six hours are necessary to dry the fruit. Have the temperature 
at 110° Fahrenheit to begin with, and raise it gradually to 140° 
Fahrenheit. The fruit should be 
so dry that when a handful of 
slices is pressed together firmly 
into a ball the slices will be 
springy enough to separate at 
once upon being released from 
the hand. The texture of the 
fruit as it is handled should be 
soft, velvety, and leathery. Pack 
the slices neatly into pasteboard 
boxes which have been lined with 
paraffin paper or tie in paper 
sacks and store in tin boxes in 
a dry place to protect from in- 
sects and dust. 

Dried apple cores and skins are evaporated separately in the 
same way as the fruit. When properly cured they possess 
commercial value in home and foreign markets for the manu- 
facture of jellies and vinegars. 

Apricots. — It is necessary to start the drjdng of apricots with 
a higher temperature (130° Fahrenheit), because they contain 
a high percentage of water. After two or three hours turn 
the fruit and allow to cool for two hours. Raise the heat to 
125° F., and continue the process as for peaches (p. 241). 

Berries. — Heating the fruits carefully in a moderate oven for 
a short while before and after sunning insures a better product 
if sunlight drying is practiced. 

Raspberries. — Black or purple raspberries are best for dry- 
ing. Pick carefully in shallow trays to prevent bruising. Sort, 
selecting only sound berries, wash lightly, and place between tea 
towels or in the sun to diy off surface moisture. Spread them 
in thin layers on the trays or racks to dry. Raise the temperature 




Fig. 121. — Sliced apples on a wooden tray. 



240 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

gradually from 110° to 125° Fahrenheit in about two hours. Do 
not raise temperature higher than 130° Fahrenheit until a con- 
siderable portion of moisture has evaporated, as otherwise there 
will be expansion and loss of juice by dripping. This is accom- 
panied by loss of flavor and color. Finish drying berries at 140° 
for two or three hours. It is necessary to dry berries from four 
to five hours. 

Cherries. — Wash, dry off surface moisture before spreading 
unseeded cherries in thin layers on trays. If cherries are seeded 
there will be a loss of juice. Dry from three to four hours at a 
temperature of 122° to 165° Fahrenheit. Raise temperature 
gradually. 

Figs (Fig. 122). — 1. Select two quarts of perfect whole figs, 
allow them to stand in a gallon of lime water (one ounce of lime 
to one gallon of water) for one hour. Remove the figs from the 
lime water and stand in clear, cold water for half an hour. Drain 
the figs well and drop them into boiling syrup. Make syrup by 
boiling together one quart of sugar and one quart of w^ater for 
ten minutes. Cook the figs rapidly in this syrup for forty or fifty 
minutes, remove the figs from the syrup, drain and place on trays 
or platters in the sun for several days, or place them in single 
layers on trays in the evaporator for three hours at a temperature 
from 130° to 150° Fahrenheit. If dried in the sun the figs should 
be turned each day and the tray should be brought indoors at 
night. It will be necessary to have the tray covered with glass or 
cheesecloth to protect the fruit from insects. During the time the 
figs are drying, if it should rain, keep them in an oven at a 
very low temperature. 

2. Select three quarts of firm, sound figs and drop them into 
boiling lye solution (two tablespoonfuls of lye to two quarts of 
water) for one minute. Lift them out carefully and put through 
two cold baths, then drop into lime water, using one ounce of lime 
to a gallon of water; allow the figs to stand in this lime water 
for an hour, drain well, and rinse in clear water. Drop them 
into a syrup which you have made by using one quart of sugar 
and one quart of water, cook the figs in this syrup rapidly until 
they are clear, drain, and place them stems up on the platter in 




Fn; 122. — Drying figs in California. 




DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 241 

the sun and allow them to remain in the sun or in a cool oven 
until they are thoroughly dried. Three to four hours in an 
evaporator at a temperature from 130° to 150° Fahrenheit will 
dry them sufficiently. 

Peaches (Fig. 123). — Peaches are usually cut in halves, and 
may be evaporated with or without being peeled. Cut in halves, 
pit, lay in trays pit side up, and dry at a temperature of 110° 
Fahrenheit to 140° Fahrenheit for four to six hours. Sometimes 
they are dropped into a thin syrup before being dried. This gives 
a better flavor and color with some varieties of peaches. 

Pears. — Pare, core, and cut fruit into eighths. As pears dis- 
color quickly, do not let stand long before drying. To prevent 
discoloration, as the fruit is prepared it may be dipped for one 
minute into a cold salt bath, using one ounce of salt to one gallon 
of water. Dry off surface moisture and put into the evaporator, 
having the temperature 110° Fahrenheit, raising temperature 
gradually to 150° Fahrenheit. Dry for four to six hours, and 
longer if necessary. Pears may also be steamed ten minutes be- 
fore drying. 

Plums. — Select medium ripe plums, cover with boiling water, 
and cover the vessel and let stand twenty minutes. Small, thin- 
fieshed varieties are not suitable for drying. Drain, remove sur- 
face moisture, and dry for four to six hours, raising the tem- 
perature graduallj' from 110° to 150° Fahrenheit. 

Storing Dried Fruits. — After trays are removed from the 
evaporator, such fruit as apples, peaches, etc., is put into bins, 
where it is stirred occasionally and allowed to remain until it 
passes through the sweating process. The fruit is again sorted ac- 
cording to appearance and quality before storing. The purpose 
in storing a dried product is to protect it from moisture, dust, 
and insects. Sometimes spoilage is caused by lack of proper 
storage. Any food which has been properly dried will keep in 
paper bags suspended from the ceiling of a fairly dry room in- 
definitely unless attacked by insects. The bags should be double- 
tied or sealed (see p. 247) to protect them from the dust. A 
safer way to store dried fruits would be to put these bags into tin 
buckets or boxes with tightly fitting covers. 
16 



242 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Preparation of Dried Fruits for Use. — Failure to serve dried 
fruits in attractive ways is due usually to not soaking them long 
enough before cooking, and to adding sugar too early in their 
preparation. Dried fruits, like dried vegetables, require long 
soaking in plenty of water, and must be allowed to come slowly 
to a boil and then to l)oil gently until the fruit is plump and 
tender. 

DRYING VEGP]TABLES 

Equally as great care should be given to the selection and 
preparation of vegetables for drying as for canning. To secure 
a fine quality of dried products much depends upon having the 
vegetables absolutely fresh, young, tender, and perfectly clean. 
Wash all vegetables and clean well. If steel knives are used in 
paring and cutting, have them clean and bright, so as not to dis- 
color the vegetable. 

After vegetables are prepared properly they are then blanched. 
The blanch gives a more thorough cleaning, removes the strong 
odor and flavor from certain kinds of vegetables, and softens and 
loosens the fiber. This allows the moisture in the vegetable to 
evaporate more quickly and uniformly. It also quickly coagulates 
the albuminous matter in the vegetables which helps to hold in 
the natural flavors. Blanching consists of plunging the vegetable 
into boiling water for a short time. Use a wire basket or cheese- 
cloth bag for this. After blanching the required number of 
minutes, drain well and remove surface moisture from vegetables 
by placing between two towels or by exposing to the sun and air 
for a short time. 

The vegetable thus prepared is spread in a thin layer on the 
trays of the drier. The temperature for drying should be rather 
low to prevent scorching the product. For most vegetables, after 
surface moisture is removed, begin drying at a temperature of 
110° Fahrenheit. Increase temperature gradually from 110° to 
145° Fahrenheit. Complete drying for most vegetables in two or 
three hours. The time required for drying vegetables varies; 
however, it can easily be determined by a little experience. The 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 243 

material should be stirred or turned several times during the 
drying in order to secure a uniform product. 

Green String Beans. — All varieties of string beans can be 
dried. Wash and string beans carefully. The very young and 
tender string bean can be dried whole. Those that are full 
grown should be cut in one-quarter to one-inch lengths with a 
vegetable slicer or a sharp knife. It is better to cut beans than 
snap them. They are then put in a bag of cheesecloth or in a 
wire basket and blanched in boiling water for six to ten minutes, 
depending on the maturity of the bean. One-half teaspoonful 
of soda may be added to each gallon of boiling water to help set 
the green color in the bean. Remove surface moisture according 
to directions given above. Begin drying at a temperature of 110° 
Fahrenheit and raise temperature gradually to 145° Fahrenheit. 
Wax beans are dried in the same manner as the green string 
beans. 

Lima Beans, — Lima beans can be shelled from the pod and 
dried. If gathered before maturity, when young and tender, wash 
and blanch for five to ten minutes. Length of time for blanching 
depends upon size * and maturity of bean. Remove surface 
moisture and dry for three to three and one-half hours at the tem- 
perature given for string beans. 

Dry Shelled Beans. — Different kinds of beans, after maturing 
and drying on the vines, can be treated as follows : Shell, wash, 
and spread in thin layers on the trays of the drier and heat ten 
minutes, beginning at 160° Fahrenheit and gradually raising the 
temperature to 180° Fahrenheit. This high temperature will 
destroy all insect eggs that might be on the beans. Cowpeas or 
any field pea can be treated in the same way. Cool and store 
carefully. It might be added that the heating of the bean or 
pea destroys its vitality and thus treated cannot be used for seed 
purposes. 

Garden Peas. — When drying the very young and tender sugar 
peas, use the pod also. Wash and cut in one-quarter inch pieces, 
blanch in boiling water six minutes, remove surface moisture, 
and dry the same length of time and at the same temperature as 



244 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

string beans. It is not necessary to use soda when l)laiieliing peas. 

The garden pea, which has a non-edil)le pod, is shelled and 
blanched for three to five rainiTtes. Remove surface moisture, 
spread in a single layer on trays, and dry for three to three and 
one-half hours. Begin drying at 110° Fahrenheit, raise tem- 
perature very slowly in about one and one-half hours to 145° 
Fahrenheit. Continue drying one and one-half or two hours at 
145° Fahrenheit. 

Sweet Corn. — Select very young and tender corn, and pre- 
pare at once after gathering. Boil or steam on the cob six to 
eight minutes to set the milk. To improve flavor a teaspoonful 
of salt to a gallon of water may be used. Drain well and cut corn 
from the cob, using a very sharp and flexible knife. Cut grains 
fine, only half way down to the cob, and scrape out the remainder 
of grain, being careful not to scrape off' any of the chaff' next 
to the cob. Dry from three to four hours at a temperature of 
110° to 145° Fahrenheit. When field corn is used, good, plump 
roasting ear stage is the proper degree of ripeness. A pound of 
dried corn per dozen ears is an average yield. This method gives 
a delicious product which is easily kept. 

Corn may be dried in the sun. Dry in oven for ten to fifteen 
minutes and finish drying in the sun. Sun drying is, of course, 
not satisfactory in damp weather, and the dried product will be 
darker in color and not as attractive in appearance. When dried 
in the sun it should be heated in the oven to kill insect eggs before 
storing. 

Carrots and Parsnips. — Clean, scrape or pare, and slice in 
one-eighth inch slices. Blanch for six minutes, remove surface 
moisture, and dry for two and one-half to three hours. Begin 
drying at 110° Fahrenheit, and raise the temperature gradually 
to 150° Fahrenheit. Kohlrabi, celeriac, and salsify are dried by 
the same method. 

Beets. — Boil the w^hole beets without peeling until a little 
more than three-fourths done. Dip in cold water, peel, and slice 
in one-eighth or one-quarter inch slices. Dry for two and one- 
half to three hours at a temperature of 110° to 150° Fahrenheit. 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 245 

Okra. — Wash, blanch for three minutes in boiling soda water 
(one-half teaspoonful of soda to one gallon of water), and 
dry for two to three hours at a temperature of 110° to 140° 
Fahrenheit. Dry young and small tender pods whole. Older 
pods should be cut into one-quarter inch slices. Small, tender 
pods are sometimes strung on a string and hung over the stove 
to dry. If dried in this manner, heat in the oven before storing. 

Onions and Leek. — Wash, peel, and slice onions in one-eighth 
to one-quarter inch slices. To avoid any unpleasantness, peel and 
slice holding under water. Blanch in boiling water for five min- 
utes, remove surface moisture, dry for two and one-half to three 
hours, beginning at 110° Fahrenheit and raising temperature 
gradually to 140° Fahrenheit. Leek is cut in one-quarter inch 
strips and dried as onions. 

Peppers. — Peppers may be dried by splitting on one side, re- 
moving seed, drying in the air, and finishing drying in the drier 
at 140° Fahrenheit. A more satisfactory method is to place 
peppers on a biscuit pan in a hot oven and heat until the skin 
blisters. Peel, split in half, take out seed, and dry at a tempera- 
ture of 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. In drying thick-fleshed pep- 
pers like the pimiento, do not increase heat too quickly, but dry 
slowly and evenly. Small varieties of red peppers may be spread 
in the sun until wilted, and the drying finished in the drier, or 
they may be entirely dried in the sun. 

Pumpkin and Summer Squash. — Pare and cut in about one- 
half inch strips and blanch for three minutes, remove surface 
moisture, and dry slowly for three to four hours, raising tempera- 
ture from 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. 

Vegetable Soup Mixtures. — Each vegetable used in the soup 
mixture is prepared and dried separately. They are put together 
in different proportions, the desired vegetable predominating. A 
combination of several vegetables makes a most desirable soup 
mixture. Those most often used are carrots, cabbage, onions, 
celery, and okra. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is shredded or cut into strips a few inches 
long. Blanch for ten minutes, drain, remove surface moisture. 



246 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

and dry for three hours at a temperature of 110° to 145° 
Fahrenheit. 

Mushrooms, — Wash fungi with a soft cloth in lukewarm salt 
water and drop into clean salt water. The lamelUi' are not re- 
moved from the partly closed mushrooms, but are removed from 
the larger open ones from w^hieh also the outer skins are removed. 
Drain and cover for one-half hour with boiling water to which 
one-half cup vinegar and one-half teaspoon salt have been added 
for each quart of water. 

Drain and wring well in a cloth, then spread on a board (not 
pine). Dry in draft and sunshine for two days, finish in an 
oven for a few hours at a temperature of 100^ Fahrenheit. Pack 
into boxes lined with parchment paper and seal tightly or tie in 
linen sacks and hang in a dry, airy place. Occasionally examine 
and subject them to wann air to prevent mildew. Soak in luke- 
warm water or milk before using. Dried fungi may also be 
pounded in a mortar. Pack in well-stoppered bottles. Use for 
thickening soups, sauces or gravies, stewed fillings for crustades 
or similar dishes where mushroom flavor is desired. 

Dried Celery and Parsley Leaves. — Celery and parsley 
leaves can be dried in the shade or for two hours in a cool oven 
(110° to 130° Fahrenheit). The temperature should be raised 
gradually. These leaves may be mixed in equal parts and pow- 
dered. Put the dried leaves through a spice mill, or use a rolling 
pin for pulverizing them. This combination makes a good sea- 
soning for soups and stuffings. It should be stored in cans or 
jars air-tight, otherwise it will soften on standing. 

Legumes. — Dried mature legumes are not only cheap, but 
they are rich in nourishment. Baked beans, for example, furnish 
more nutriment than lieef costing two or three times as much. 

Storing Dried Vegetables. — When vegetables are first taken 
from the drier, if completely dried they are very brittle. They 
are more easily handled and are in better condition for storing 
if allowed to stand one to three hours to absorb enough moisture 
to make them more pliable before putting them into bags or 
storing otherwise. If it is not convenient to store products imme- 
diately, and they are allowed to stand for several days, they 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 247 

should l)e heated to 160" Fahrenheit to destroy any insect eggs 
that might be on them. Care should be taken not to heat the 
vegetable higher than 160° Fahrenheit. 

Dried vegetables should always be stored in moisture-proof 
containers and in a dry place, free from dust and dirt. The best 
container is a tin box, bucket, or can fitted with a tight cover. 
Perhaps the most convenient and cheapest container is the small 
paper bag. A small amount should be put into each bag, just 
enough for use in one or two. meals. This will prevent the opening 
of any dried product that cannot be consumed in a short time. 
The upper part of the bag is twisted to form a neck. The neck 
is bent over and tied tight with a string. Dip a small brush into 
melted paraffin and paint the entire bag. This makes the bag 
practically moisture and insect proof. To further protect from 
insect ravages, label and pack bags in a tin container with a 
tight-fitting cover. A large number of bags can be stored in 
an ordinary lard can. A glass jar with a tight seal is a good con- 
tainer for dried products. Paraffin-coated paper containers of 
various sizes can be found on the market. If such containers are 
used they should also be stored as the paper bags. 

All dried products should be examined occasionally, and, upon 
the first appearance of insects, spread in thin layers in the sun 
until insects disappear; heat to a temperature of 160° Fahrenheit 
and restore carefully. 

Preparation of Dried Vegetables for Use. — 1. Soak for sev- 
eral hours in warm or cold water to absorb the moisture lost 
through evaporation. 

2. Drain and boil such vegetables as peas, beans, and spinach 
in soda water, using about one-eighth teaspoonful of soda to one 
quart of water. 

3. One tablespoonful of lemon juice added to dried beans after 
soaking them adds much improvement in flavor. 

4. Add seasoning to the dried vegetables to make them more 
palatable — celery, mustard, onions, cheese, nutmeg, etc. 

5. Dried vegetables are used in soup, and most deliciously 
flavored thick puree may be made of them. Four ounces of dried 
soup vegetables (sliced carrots, potatoes, cabbage, onions, etc.) will 
be sufficient to make three quarts to one gallon of vegetable soup. 



248 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

DRYING HERBS 
"Oh! who can tell the hidden power of Herbs, 
And might of magic sj^ell! " — Hpenscr. 

The ancient housekeeper was far more interested than the 
modern one in gathering and drying her own herbs at tlie right 
season for culinary and medicinal uses. In the olden days herbs 
were relied upon to give variety to the daily menu and for tonic 
qualities, while to-day the flavor only is the dominant thought. 
A dash of prepared ' ' kitchen bouquet ' ' will answer all purposes. 

French and Italian cooks excel in the skilful use of the variety 
of herbs in their cooking, while only three or four herbs — parsley, 
mint, sage, and thyme — are geuerall}" used by the American cooks. 

The cultivation of herbs has been considered within the 
woman's domain because of the close relationship between herljs 
and cookery. In some cases it has been found profitable as a com- 
mercial enterprise. The Durham mustard which is now popular 
on the market was first prepared by a woman. Her ingenuity in 
making mustard flour and then preparing the Durham mustard 
has won for her a world-wide reputation. Most herbs are easily 
cultivated, since they are not disturbed by insects because of the 
essential oils found in them. 

The old time garden herbs are part of every well regTilated 
kitchen garden. 

In many communities herbs might be grown cooperatively, 
each kitchen garden to contain herbs agreed upon in advance. 

Picking. — Herbs should be gathered in the morning after the 
dew has disappeared. The blossoms of catnip and like herbs are 
gathered. The belief that herbs should be gathered only when in 
blossom is probably an erroneous one. When only the leaves are 
desired to dry, they should be gathered while they are young and 
tender. If the leaves are picked when they are young and fresh a 
new growth continues to come, and these are as good as the first 
picking. 

Every^ good cook keeps on hand "The Bouquet Garni" or the 
Herb Bouquet. A spray of parsley, sprig of thyme, a bay leaf, and 
a branch of celery constitute a good "Herb Bouquet," and it 
will flavor about one gallon of soup if cooked with it for an hour. 

Drying. — Often the whole plant has to be dried in order not 



DKYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 249 

to shake off the seed pods. Stems and seeds may be spread out to 
diy on sheets of cotton cloth, or dried on trays of wire mesh or in 
a fruit evaporator, when one is available. Herbs which have been 
allowed to dry in the shade for one day can be quickly finished 
by subjecting them to a temperature of about 110° to 130° 
Fahrenheit in an oven or an evaporator. The length of time 
varies with the kind of herb being dried. The following herbs 
will dry sufficiently in the time given, if the temperature of 110° 
to 130° Fahrenheit is kept uniform: 

Parsley for about 1 hour 30 minutes 

Sage for about 1 hour 10 minutes 

Mint for about 1 hour 

Thyme for about 1 hour 

Savory for aI)out 1 hour 

Marjoram for about 4.') minutes 

Tarragon, basil, chives, and spearmint can also be dried. 

Fell. — Young, tender sassafras leaves are gathered in the early 
spring, dried and powdered. The French use this in gumbo and 
for seasoning and thickening gravies and sauces. 

Sweet Bay Leaves. — Sweet bay leaves are gathered while still 
young and tender and dried in the shade and bottled to use for 
seasoning. Laurus nobilis is the bay leaf of commerce. 

Peppers. — Small hot peppers are strung on cord and hung up 
to dry slowly in the shade. 

Storing Herbs, — An attractive way to pack herbs is to wrap 
them carefully in wax paper and place in small cans or packages. 
Dried leaves may be packed in glass jars, and powdered herbs 
are more often packed in narrow necked bottles. The herbs are 
less liable to become moldy if they are kept dry and closed from 
the dust. When leaves and blossoms are to be packed they must 
be clean and free from stems. Herbs such as anise, coriander, 
caraway, fennel, lovage, and horehound are often used in confec- 
tionery. Angelica is valued for its stems, and it is sometimes 
candied. Iris root, dried lavender, sweet grass, clover blossoms, 
and rose petals have been used from time immemorial l)y house- 
wives to perfume their linen closets. 

Medicinal Herbs. — Since domestic medicinal remedies are no 
longer made the growing of medicinal herbs is not common, but 
it might still be made a source of income in a limited way. 



350 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND I'KESKUVING 

An article in the United States Yearbook of the Department of 
Agriculture for 1903 states: "As a result of such a study of the 
situation as has thus far been practicable, the Southern States 
seem to offer many advantages for the prospective drug grower. 
The long-growing season needed for many drug plants, the low 
price of labor, and the usual low price of land combine to make 
sections of the South seem promising in this connection." 

Herbs which can sometimes be sold to local druggists are as 

follows : 

Bont'.set Motherwort W'intergret'ii loaves 

Catnip Ba«s\vood flower^ Ked raspberry leaves 

IMulleiii Tansy leaves and blossoms Jinison-weed leaves 

Sage Yarrow leaves and blossoms Red clover 
Lol)clia 

Bark. — The bark is peeled, so that none of the wood is left. 
Blackhaw, cherry, poplar, and Wahoo barks may be sold in small 
quantities and usually bring from three to eight cents a pound. 
In some cases the bark of the root is called for, such as the bark 
of the Wahoo and Blackhaw roots, and these bring from ten to 
fifteen cents per pound. 

Seeds.— Pumpkin, sunflower, lobelia, prickly ash berry, cara- 
way, dill, burdock seed, and corn-silk are sometimes sold for three 
to fifteen cents per pound. 

Roots. — Ginseng, burdock, bloodroot, yellow dock, mandrake, 
Indian turnip or spikenard root, Jack-in-the-pulpit, and sarsapa- 
rilla often sell for three to ten cents per pound. 

HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES 

To those persons fortunate enough to possess land for the 
growing of vegetables sufiicient in quantity for the needs of the 
famil}', storage is an economic necessity. Likewise it is an eco- 
nomic necessity to grow vegetables to store. A half-acre garden 
should produce far more vegetables than the average family 
can consume during the maturing period of the crops. Only a 
small portion of the garden should be planted to those vegetables 
which must be used as soon as they reach maturity. The re- 
mainder should be devoted to crops that are to be canned, dried, 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 251 

or stored. It is comparatively easy to keep by storing such vege- 
tables as potatoes, beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify, turnips, cab- 
bage, celery, onions, sweet potatoes, dry beans, and dry lima 
beans. Some of the crops may be stored in the cellar under the 
dwelling, in pits or banks, or in caves or outdoor cellars. Others 
can be kept in any dry place, such as the pantry or attic. 

The Storage Room in the Basement. — Many houses are 
heated by a furnace in the cellar. The pipes are, as a rule, car- 
ried under the joist, thus warming the cellar to some extent. 
For this reason it is best to partition off a small room in one 
corner of the cellar to serve as a storage-room for potatoes, beets, 
carrots, parsnips, salsify, and turnips. If possible, this room 
should have at least one window for the purpose of regulating 
the temperature. The floor should not be concreted, as the nat- 
ural earth makes better conditions for the keeping of vegetables. 
Bins may be constructed for the various products, or they may 
be stored in boxes, baskets, or barrels. This room will also serve 
as a storage place for fresh fruits and canned goods. The vege- 
tables to be stored should be harvested when the ground is dry, 
and allowed to lie on the surface long enough for the moisture to 
dry off before placing them in storage. The tops should be re- 
moved from beets, turnips, carrots, and salsify before placing 
them in storage. 

Outdoor pits or banks are very generally used for keeping 
potatoes, beets, carrots, turnips, parsnips, cabbage, and salsify. 
Select a well-drained location and make an excavation. This is 
lined with straw, leaves, or similar material, and the vegetables 
placed in a conical pile on the material. The vegetables are then 
covered with straw or similar material, and finally with earth to a 
depth of several inches. The depth of the earth covering is de- 
termined by the severity of the winters in the particular locality. 
It is well to cover the pits with straw, corn fodder, or manure dur- 
ing severe weather. Such pits keep the above vegetables very well, 
but have the objection that it is hard to get the material out in 
cold weather, and where the pit is once opened it is desirable to 
remove the entire contents. For this reason several small pits 



252 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

rather than one large one should be constructed so that the entire 
contents may be removed at one time. Instead of storing each 
crop in a pit by itself, it is better to place several vegetables in 
the same pit, so that it will be necessary to open only one pit to 
get a supply of all of them. In storing several crops in the same 
pit it is a good plan to separate them with straw, leaves, or other 
material. The vegetables from the small pit may be placed in the 
basement storage-room, where they can be easily secured as needed 
for the table. 

Cabbage may be stored in a special kind of bank or pit. The 
excavation is made long and narrow and about the same depth as 
for the other vegetables. The cabbages are pulled and placed 
in rows in the pit with the heads down and roots up. The whole 
is covered with dirt ; no straw or litter need be used. These 
pits are made as long as desired, as it is possible to remove por- 
tions of the stored product without disturbing the remainder. 
Cabbage need not be covered as deeply as potatoes, as slight freez- 
ing does not injure the cabbage. The heads of cabbage are some- 
times stored in banks or pits in a manner similar to potatoes, 
turnips, etc. This method is open to the same objection as when 
it is used for potatoes: it is hard to get at the material when it 
is needed. Another method of storing cabbage consists in setting 
the whole plant in trenches side by side with the roots down and 
as close together as they can be placed. Dirt is thrown over the 
roots and against the stalks to the depth of several inches. A low 
fence is built around the storage place, and rails, scantling, or 
other supports laid across the top. About two feet of straw or 
other material is then piled on top of the storage pit. 

Celery may be stored in a modified type of outside pit, or in 
the row where it is grown. When stored in a pit or trench the 
plants are taken up and set side by side in a shallow pit a'^ close 
together as it is feasible to pack them, and wide boards set up 
along the outside of the pit. Dirt is banked against these boards, 
and the top covered over with corn fodder or similar material. 
When celery is kept in the row where it is grown the earth is 
banked up around the plants as the weather gets cold. When 
freezing weather occurs the dirt should be brought to the tops 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 253 

of the plants and the ridge covered with coarse mannre, straw or 
fodder, held in place by means of stakes or boards. 

Outdoor Caves or Cellars. — Otitdoor caves or cellars are 
superior to banks or j^its in many respects. They require no 
more labor to store the vegetables than an indoor cellar, yet 
give a uniform and low temperature during the entire year. They 
possess practically all the advantages of the bank or pit, yet may 
be entered at any time during the winter for the removal of any 
portion of the stored product without endangering the keeping 
quality of the material that remains. These storage cellars are 
usually made partially under ground, although in the southern 
portion of the country they are usually entirely above ground. In 
sections where severe freezing occurs it is well to have the cellar 
partially under ground. In order to avoid steps down to the level 
of the floor, with the consequent extra labor in storing and re- 
moving the vegetables, a side-hill location is desirable for the 
cellar. An excavation is made into the hill of the approximate 
size of the cellar. The dirt from this excavation may be used 
for covering the roof and for banking against the sides of the 
structure. A frame should be erected by setting posts in rows in 
the bottom of the pit near the dirt walls, sawing these off at a uni- 
form height, placing plates on top of the posts, and erecting 
rafters on these plates. The whole should be boarded up on the 
outside of the posts, with the exception of a space for a door 
in one end. The whole structure, except the door, is covered with 
dirt and sod. The thickness of the covering will be determined by 
the location ; the colder the climate the thicker the covering. 
The dirt covering may be supplemented by a layer of manure, 
straw, corn fodder, etc., in winter time. Outdoor cellars are 
usually left with dirt floors, as a certain amount of moisture is 
desirable. These cella'S may also be made of concrete, brick, 
stone, or other material. Cuch cellars are to be found in many 
sections of the country, and provide almost ideal storage facilities 
for potatoes, beets, turnips, carrots, parsnips, salsify, and celery. 
Sweet potatoes should be thoroughly matured before harvest- 
ing, dug while the ground is dry, carefully handled, and thor- 
oughly cured by holding them at a temperature of 80° to 85° 



254 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Fahreiilieit fur a week or ten days after harvesting. After this 
they should be stored in a place where the temperature remains 
in the neighborhood of 55° Fahrenheit. Such a location is usually 
near the furnace in the cellar, or near the furnace chimney on 
the second floor of the house. There is little merit in wrapping 
them in paper or burying them in sand. Sweet potatoes are 
stored in outdoor pits or banks, but this method is not to be recom- 
mended except where no other facilities are available. Sweet 
potatoes stored in pits are not as good in quality as those stored 
in houses. 

Onions should be well matured before harvesting, and should 
be allowed to become thoroughly dry before being stored. They 
may be put up in baskets, crates, or bags, and placed in a cool, dry 
place. The attic is better than the cellar for storing onions. Tem- 
peratures slightly below the freezing-point do not injure tliem. 

Beans, Peas, and Other Dried Products, — Such vegetables as 
may be kept in the dry state should be grown to as great an extent 
as possible. Various kinds of beans, including lima beans, should 
be allowed to dry on the vines. Lima beans should be gathered 
as they mature, and placed in a warm, dry place until dry enough 
to shell. Navy beans and kidney beans are usually harvested 
when a maximum number of pods are mature and the vines cured 
like hay, after which they are threshed or shelled. Peas are 
handled in the same way as navy beans. After the beans and peas 
are threshed or shelled and dried off they should be placed in 
bags and hung in some dry place, such as a closet or attic. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What advantages have dried vegetables and fruits over canned ones? 

2. Is there any advantage in this means of preservation in the home? 

3. State three essential steps in the drying of herbs, vegetables, or fruits. 

4. What special care should be taken in the storage of dried products? 

5. What are the principal causes of an unsatisfactorily dried product? 

6. Wliy should the use of herbs be encouraged in this country? 

7. Suggest as many ways as possible for tlie use of dried vegetables in the 

diet. 

8. What special points should be considered in the preparation of them? 

9. What mistakes are often made in the preparation of dried fruits for 

serving? 



DRYING FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND HERBS 255 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Abel, Ambrose, " Pieseivation of Food," 1857. Publislied Ijy Case, 

Loekwood & Co., Hartford, Conn. 

2. Beattie, JamEkS H., "Home Storage of Vegetables," 1!)17, Fanners' 

Bulletin No. 879, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. Caldwell, J. S., "Evaporation of Apples," Bulletin 131, Mixy, I'.tKJ. 

Published by State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. 

4. Cokbett, L. C, ■" Raspljerries," 1!)05, Farmers' Bulletini 213, United 

States Department of Agriculture. Can be procured from the Supt. 
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 5. cents. 

5. "Creole Cook Book." Published by The Picayune, New Orleans, La. 

$1.25. 
G. Cruess, W. v., " Drying Fruits and Vegetables, 1917, Methods of Food 
Preservation III." University of California, Berkeley, California. 

7. Gould, H. P., and Beattie, James H., " Commercial Evaporation and 

Drying of Fruits," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 903, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

8. GiBBS, Walter M., " Spices and How to Know Them," 1909. Publislied 

by the Matthews-Northrup Works, Buffalo, N. Y. 

9. Henkel, Alice, " Flowers, Fruits and Seeds," 1913, Bulletin 26, B. P. I.; 

" Weeds Used in Medicine," 1904, Farmers' Bulletin 188, United 
States Department of Agriculture. Can be purchased from Superin- 
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 5 cents each. 

10. Lewis, C. I., and Brown, W. S., " Fruit and Vegetable By-products," 

1914, College Bulletin No. 128, Published by Oregon Agricultural 
College, Corvallis, Ore. 

11. Marshall, Lucile, "Garden Herbs: Culture and Uses," The Ohio 

Farmer, January 8, 1916, vol. 137, No. 2. Published by the Lawrence 
Publishing Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 

12. Plat, Sir Hugh, " Delights for Ladies," 1632. Sold by J. Boler, London. 

13. Pernot, E. F., " Preserving Wild Mushrooms," 1908, Experiment Sta- 

tion Bulletin 98. Published by Oregon Agricultural College, Cor- 
vallis, Ore. 

14. True, Rodney H.', " Cultivation of Drug Plants in the United States," 

Yearlx)ok Separate No. 32.5, Agricultural Yearbook of 1903, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture'. Can be purchased from Superintendent of 
Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 75 cents. 

15. Farmers' Bulletin No. 841, " Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the 

Home"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 847, "Potato Storage and Storage 
Houses "; Farmers' Bulletin No. 864, " Saving Vegetable Seed for the 
Home and Market Garden"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 879, "Home 
Storage of Vegetables"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 916, "A Success- 
ful Cnmnninity Drying Plant," United States Department of Agri- 
culture, Washington, D. C. 



CHAPTER XVI 

PRESERVATION OF MEATS 

Since the earliest ages people have preserved meats by various 
means, and some of the methods in use to-day have come down 
from a great antiquity. Most of the modern methods of meat 
preservation, which have wide commercial use, can also be used 
in the home, with the single exception of canning meats, which 
it is not wise for the home maker to attempt who is inexperienced 
in canning. Among the principal means used are drying, smok- 
ing, and curing with salt. 

GENERAL METHODS 

Drying. — This is not only the oldest method of preserving 
foods, but it is the simplest. While drying is better adapted to 
the curing of fruits and vegetables than it is to meats, yet meats 
are often shredded and dried in many parts of the world. Drying 
meats should only be practiced where there is little moisture in 
the atmosphere, or the meat will spoil before it becomes dry 
enough. It is never advisable to attempt to preserve meats by 
this method in cities where there is great danger of bacteria. 
Dried meat maintains all of its nutritive properties, but it is not 
easily digested on account of the toughened tissues. This product 
is not attractive in appearance, and this fact also works against its 
extensive use. 

Smoking. — The custom of smoking meats is said to have 
originated from the habit of suspending meat near the fireplace in 
the dwelling. The meat became saturated with the creosote from 
the smoke, which gave it an agreeable taste and aided in its keep- 
ing qualities. The creosote was formed by the burning of the wood, 
and the smoke closed the pores to some extent, excluding the 
air and proving objectionable to insects. Before meats are smoked 
they usually undergo a treatment of salt and sugar, with some- 
times a small amount of saltpetre added to modify the color, com- 
256 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 257 

position, and flavor, and to aid in the preservation of the meat. 
Saltpetre is considered injurious to health by some hygieiiists, 
and therefore many may object to its use. It is included in 
some of these recipes because its use had heretofore been cus- 
tomary. 

Because the old method of smoking meats is long and expen- 
sive, a cheaper and quicker way has come into practice rather re- 
cently. Directions for this latter method state that brine is soaked 
into the meat, which is then treated with "smokine" or "liquid 
smoke." This solution may be purchased from a local druggist. 

Liquid Smoke Method. — 

200 pounds of meat 1 ounce of saltpetre 

4 quarts of coarse salt 1 quart of warm water 

1 pound of brown sugar 14 pound of ground pepper 

Dissolve the saltpetre in the water, add salt and sugar, and 
mix well. Rub this mixture into the meat, and lay on a bench 
in a cold place for fourteen days. Then apply the liquid smoke 
with a brush, dry well, and in a few days paint the meat again 
with the liquid. Hang up, and when thoroughly dry wrap the 
meat in heavy brown paper and then in a clean flour sack. 

Much time is saved by using the above recipe, but the meat 
which has been cured in the old-fashioned smoke-house is much 
finer in flavor and texture. Smoke-houses are still in use in many 
sections of the country. The meat should not be subjected to the 
smoke until it has been properly cured and drained. 

Curing in Brine and Dry Salting. — Curing should begin as 
soon as the meat is cold and while it is still fresh. Frozen meats 
should not be salted, as the action of the frost will prevent proper 
penetration of the salt and uneven curing will result. 

Pure water, salt, sugar, and saltpetre are all the ingredients 
needed for ordinary curing of meat. Meat may be packed in 
large earthen jars or in clean barrels, tight enough to prevent 
leakage. The barrel or jar may be used again and again unless 
meat has spoiled in it. These vessels should always be scalded 
thoroughly each time before packing fresh meat into them. 

Brine-cured meats are best for farm use, for the reason that a 
17 



258 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

suitable place for dry-curing is not usually obtainable. It is also 
less trouble to pack the meat in a barrel and pour on a brine than 
to g'o over it three or four times to rub in the salt. The bi'iuing 
method also gives better protection from insects and vermin. 
Trouble is sometimes experienced in keej^ing brine, but if pure 
water is used and directions are followed in making the brine 
there should be no difficulty in keeping it for a reasonaljle length 
of time. During warm weather brine should be closely watched. 
If it becomes ' 'ropy ' ' it should be boiled or more brine made. A 
cool, moist cellar is the best place for brine-curing. Dry-curing 
may be done successfully in a cellar also, though even more 
moisture is needed to ett'ect a thorough cure. The cellar should 
be dark and tight enough to prevent flies and vermin from dam- 
aging the meat. When meats wliicli have been cured in brine are 
boiled the shrinkage is greater than those which have been cured 
by dry-salting. 

PRESERVING BEEF ^ 

Corned Beef. — The pieces commonly used for corning are 
the plate, rump, cross-ribs, and brisket, or, in other words, the 
cheaper cuts of meat. The loin, ribs, and other fancy cuts are 
more often used fresh, and, since there is more or less waste of 
nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for coming should 
be cut into convenient-sized joints, say five or six inches square. 
It should be the aim to cut them all about the same thickness so 
that they will make an even layer in the barrel. 

Meat from fat animals makes choicer corned beef than that 
from poor animals. When the meat is thoroughly cooled it 
should be corned as soon as possible, as any decay in the meat is 
likely to spoil the brine during the coming process. Under no 
circumstances should the meat be brined while it is frozen. 
Weigh out the meat and allow eight pounds of salt to each 100 
pounds ; sprinkle a layer of salt one-quarter of an inch in depth 
over the bottom of the barrel ; pack in as closely as possible the 

' Note. — This recipe and others which follow are quoted from Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 183, "Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keeping," 
by Andrew Boss, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 259 

cuts of meat, making a layer five or six inches in thickness ; then 
put on a layer of salt, following with another layer of meat; 
repeat until the meat and salt have all been packed in the 
barrel, care being used to reserve salt enough for a good layer 
over the top. After the pack has stood over night add, for 
every 100 pounds of meat, four pounds of sugar, two ounces of 
baking soda, and four ounces of saltpetre dissolved in a gallon 
of tepid water. Three gallons more of water should be sufficient 
to cover this quantity. In case more or less than 100 pounds of 
meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion given. A 
loose board cover weighted down with a heavy stone should be 
put on the meat to keep all of it under the brine. In case any 
should project, the meat would spoil and cause the brine to 
deteriorate. 

It is not necessary to boil the brine except in warm weather. 
If the meat has been corned during the winter and must be kept 
into the summer season, it would be well to watch the brine 
closely during the spring, as it is more likely to spoil at that 
time than at any other season. If the brine appears to be 
ropy or does not drip freely from the finger when immersed 
and lifted, it should be drained off and new brine added, after 
carefully washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the brine 
has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the brine is kept in a cool 
place, there is sometimes trouble from this source. The meat 
should be kept in the brine twenty-eight to forty days to secure 
thorough corning. 

Dried Beef. — The round is commonly used for dried beef, the 
inside of the thigh being considered the choicest piece, as it is 
slightly more tender than the outside of the round. The round 
should be cut lengthwise of the grain of meat in preparing for 
dried beef, so that the muscle-fibers may be cut crosswise when 
the dried beef is sliced for table use. A tight jar or cask is 
necessar}^ for curing. The process is as follows: To each 100 
pounds of meat weigh out five pounds of salt, three pounds of 
granulated sugar, and two ounces of saltpetre; mix thoroughly 
together. Rub the meat on all surfaces with a third of the mix- 
ture and pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. Allow it to 



260 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

remain three days, when it should be removed and rubbed again 
with another third of the mixture. In repacking put at the 
bottom the pieces that were on top the first time. Let stand for 
three days, when they should be removed and rubbed with the 
remaining third of the mixture and allowed to stand for three 
days more. The liquid forming in the jars should not be removed, 
but the meat should be repacked in the liquid each time. The meat 
is ready to be taken from the pickle, and should be smoked and 
hung in a dry attic or near the kitchen fire where the water will 
evaporate from it. It may be used at any time after smoking, 
although the longer it hangs in the dry atmosphere the drier it 
will get. The drier the climate, in general, the more easily meats 
can be dried. In arid regions good dried meat can be made by 
exposing it fresh to the air, with protection from flies. 

Pickling Meat. — Authorities differ in regard to the formula 
used in the pickling of meats. The following recipe is often used 
for tongue and small pieces of meat : 

Cured Tongue. — 

2 gallons of water 1 ounce of saltpetre 

3 pounds of salt V2 cupful of sugar 

Rub part of the salt into the meat, dissolving the remainder 
of the salt, the sugar, and the saltpetre in the water. Boil, 
skim, and strain to remove all impurities. Cool thoroughly be- 
fore adding meat. Place a weight over the jar to keep the meat 
under the brine. Keep in a cold place and the tongue will be 
cured and ready to cook in four or five days. 

PRESERVING PORK ^ 

Plain Salt Pork. — Rub each piece of meat with fine common 
salt and pack closely in a barrel. Let stand over night. The 
next day weigh out ten pounds of salt and two ounces of salt- 
petre to each 100 pounds of meat and dissolve in four gallons of 
boiling water. Pour this brine over the meat when cold, cover, 
and weigh down to keep it under the brine. 

* Note. — These directions for handling pork were contributed by Major 
Lawrence Foot, Special Agent Marketing, U, S, Department of Agriculture, 
Little Rock, Ark, 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 



261 



How to Cure, Smoke, and Keep Hams, Shoulders, and 
Bacon. — ]\Ieat cannot be safely cured if it has any animal heat 
in it. 

Cutting a Pork (Fig. 124). — ^Remove the head one inch be- 
hind th(^ ears, the feet one inch above the knee-and-hock-joints. 
The shoulder cut is made between the fourth and fifth ribs. The 




Fig. 124. — Cutting a pork. 




Fig. 125. — Trimming hams. 



Fig. 120. — Picnic hams properly 
trimmed. 



ham is removed from the middle piece by cutting just back of the 
rise in the backbone. The hams should be trimmed neatly and 
round, making long hams; cut six inches below the stitle-joint 
(Pig. 125). The shoulders can be cut into picnic hams if desired 
(Fig. 126). Notice carefully the illustrations of hams, picnic 
hams, and bacon properly trimmed (Figs. 127 and 128). Remove 

Note. — Drawin^.s made from illustrations in Farmers' Bulletin No. 183. 



2 (52 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



the backbone from the middle piece by sawing oft' the ribs close to 
it. Remove the ribs, leaving as little meat on them as possible, as 
that meat will l)e needed in the sides to have bacon "with a streak 
of lean." Trim the sides neatly and with straight edges; leaf fat 
and the fat trimmings go into lard, the lean into sausage. 

Salting. — No sugar and no saltpetre are used in this recipe. 
A hanging pew, box, or cask may be used for packing salted 





Fig. 127. — A well-trimmed ham. 



Fig. 128. — A well-trimmed break- 
fast bacon. 



pork. First, place a layer of salt and pepper on the bottom of 
the pew or box, then the pieces of meat, skin down, salting the 
top heavily ; then another layer, skin down, salting it, and so on, 
covering every particle of the meat, sides, ends, and top, with 
salt. When done the meat will look like a pile of salt. Hams, 
shoulders, and bacon are salted in this manner and allowed to 
stand three or four weeks, according to the weather. If it is 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 363 

very cold it takes a longer period. If the weather turns warm, 
shorten the period, but endeavor to cure the meat in a room that 
will average a temperature of 50°, if possible. If during curing 
the salt becomes crusted, overhaul the meat, rub the salt in thor- 
oughly by hand, and pack it back in the same salt. When the 
meat has remained in the salt for the proper time, remove it, 
wash the meat thoroughly with tepid water, scrubbing it with a 
brush until all salt is removed from the outside, then hang "as 
the hog walks" — shanks down. The hams and shoulders should 
hang by wire from the thick ends. Drain the meat thoroughly 
for at least twenty-four hours, then put smoke to it. 

Smoking. — The meat should hang at least fifteen feet above 
the fire. Start a slow fire with green hickory chips and smother 
the flame, if any, with corn-cobs. The meat should be warmed 
up gradually with a cool, dry smoke and smoked from ten to 
fifteen days, or until the meat has the proper color, a light 
chestnut. The house should never get hot (see p. 268). 

Sugar-cured Breakfast Bacon. — For up-to-date "sugar- 
cured" breakfast bacon, take pieces one inch to one and one- 
half inches in thickness, six to eight inches wide, and fifteen to 
eighteen inches long, and treat with salt, sugar and saltpetre 
mixture for fifteen to twenty-two days, unless strips are heavier. 
To every 100 pounds of meat weigh out eight pounds of salt, 
two pounds of granulated white sugar, and two ounces of salt- 
petre, mix all thoroughly, dampen the top side (not skin side) 
lightly with water by using a whisk broom dipped in water, then 
rub the mixture into the top side, the edges, and the ends. 
Sprinkle bottom of box with the mixture, lay in the piece that is 
rubbed, skin down, and sprinkle with the salt mixture, giving a 
light coating on top, then another, and so on. Every seven days 
from the day packed, overhaul all, rub each piece again, and re- 
salt with the same mixture lightly. The bacon that is one inch 
thick should remain in mixture fifteen days. The bacon that is 
one and one-half inches thick should remain in mixture twenty- 
two days. Heavier bacon may require longer time. Then take 
out, wash thoroughly, hang in smoke-house twenty-four hours to 
drain, and smoke to a light-chestnut color. This recipe should 



264 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

not be used where the meat must be kept in a warm and dry 
place, as the preservatives will not penetrate easily and uni- 
formly. 

Pickled Hams and Bacon in Brine. — This recipe differs from 
the one given (p. 262), in that it calls for saltpetre and water. It 
has given satisfaction and is preferred by some. When the meat 
is cold, rub each piece with salt and allow it to drain over night. 
Then pack it in a barrel with the hams and shoulders in the 
bottom, using the strips of bacon to fill in between or to put on 
top. Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat eight pounds of 
salt, two pounds of brown sugar, or syrup, and two ounces of salt- 
petre. Dissolve all in four gallons of water, and cover the meat 
with the brine. For sunmier use it will be safest to boil the brine 
before using. In that case it should be thoroughly cooled be- 
fore it is used. For winter curing it is not necessary to boil 
the brine. Bacon strips should remain in this brine four to six 
weeks ; hams, six to eight weeks. Hams and bacon cured in the 
spring will keep right through the summer after they are smoked. 
The meat will be sweet and palatable if it is properly smoked, 
and the flavor will be good. 

Head-cheese. — ^Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove 
the brain, ears, skin, snout, and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts 
for lard. Put the lean and bony parts to soak over night in 
cold water in order to extract the blood and dirt. When the 
meat is cleaned, put it over the fire to boil, using water enough 
to cover it. Boil until the meat separates readily from the bone. 
Then remove it from the fire and pick out all of the bones. Drain 
off the liquor, saving a part of it for future use. Chop the meat 
up finely with a chopping knife. Return it to the kettle and 
pour on enough of the liquor to cover the meat. Let it boil 
slowly for fifteen minutes to half hour. Season to taste with salt 
and pepper just before removing it from the fire. Turn into 
a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheesecloth and put 
on a board with a weight to make it solid. When cold it should 
be sliced thinly and served without further cooking. 

Scrapple. — The process for making this article of food is like 
that for head-cheese until the bones are removed and the meat 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 265 

chopped. When the liquor is added, return the pan to the stove 
to boil. Cornmeal is then stirred in until the contents are as thick 
as cornmeal mush. Stir it constantly for the first fifteen minutes. 
Then set it back on the stove to boil slowly for an hour. When 
it is done, pour it into a shallow dish to mould. Hot grease 
poured over the top after scrapple is put into moulds will help 
in keeping it. When cold it is sliced in thin pieces and fried. 

Pickled Pigs' Feet/' — Pigs ' feet should be thoroughly scalded, 
cleaned, washed and chilled, and cured in a clean, sterilized 
Avooden vessel. Strength of pickle depends upon length of time 
it is to be carried, say an 80^ pickle with five ounces of saltpetre 
per 100 pounds of meat for shipment in ten days; a 100° pickle 
for five days. Some curers use in addition one and one-half 
pounds of sugar per 100 pounds of feet. Pigs' feet cured by 
this method will be white and more attractive than when pickled 
with spices. 

If spices are used it must be remembered that cloves tend to 
darken the feet. Curing should be effected in a clean wooden 
receptacle, using clean water for each batch. 

Trying Out Lard. — Only the best of fat should be used for 
choice lard. Leaf fat is the best. Leaf lard is that which is 
made from the leaf fat which lies around the kidneys. The 
next best in quality is that from the back, and the poorest 
quality is that from around the intestines. The greater part of 
the lard marketed is obtained by melting together the whole fat 
except the leaf fat. The back strip of the side also makes nice 
lard, as do the ham, shoulder, and neck trimmings. Fat from 
around the intestines should never be mixed with the leaf and 
back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept 
separate. All scraps of lean meat should be cut out of the fat 
before trying out, as they are veiy likely to stick to the kettle and 
get scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. When 
preparing the fat for trying, cut it into pieces from one to one 
and one-half inches square. The pieces should be nearly equal 
in size, so that they will try out in about the same time. Pill a 
clean kettle about three-fourths full, and put in a quart of water 

' Quoted from " The National Provisioner." 



266 SUCCESSFUL CANNING A^D PRESERVING 

or, if convenient, a quart of hot lard. One or the other is necessary 
to prevent the fat from burning before the heat is sufficient to 
bring out the grease. Keep the kettle over a moderate fire. When 
starting the temperature should be about 160'^ F., and should 
gradually rise to 195° F. Cook until the cracklings are brown and 
light enough to float. Frequent stirring will be necessary to pre- 
vent burning. When done, remove from the stove and allow to 
cool slightly, and then strain through a muslin cloth into a large 
jar. Stir it occasionally until it is cool enough to begin to solidify. 
If pails or smaller jars are to be filled, the lard should be dipped 
out while just warm enough to be liquid. Stirring while the lard 
is cooling tends to whiten it and makes it smoother. Lard should 
be stored in a dry, cool, dark place. Light, moisture, and high 
temperatures affect its quality unfavorably. 

SAUSAGE 

Sausage. — Pork sausage should be made only from clean, 
fresh pork. The shoulders, neck, and lean trimmings are usu- 
ally used for sausage. Unless part of the fat is removed and 
used for lard the sausage is likely to be too fat. To each 
eighteen pounds of lean meat allow six pounds of fat. Mix the 
fat and lean meat together in chopping. Where a rotary cutter 
is used it is best to cut the meat twice (Fig. 129). After it is 
cut the first time, spread it out thinly and season. Eight ounces 
of pure, fine salt, four ounces of ground black j^epper, four 
ounces of pure leaf sage, rubbed fine, and one teaspoonful of red 
pepper to each twenty-four pounds of meat will suit the taste of 
most persons. The seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the 
cut meat and the meat again run through the cutter to mix 
the seasoning thoroughly. This method will give a more even 
mixing of the spices than can be obtained by working it with the 
hands. For immediate use the sausage may be packed away in 
stone jars or crocks, to be sliced for frying. INIany people stuff 
it into casings made from the small intestines of the hog. When 
this is done the intestines must be turned inside out and care- 
fully cleaned. 

A good substitute for casings may be had in narrow muslin 
bags. These, when filled, should be two and one-half or three 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 



267 



inches in diameter and eighteen to twenty-four inches long. 
Stuff the sausage in tightly by hand and hang in a cool place. 
If the sausage is to be kept for some time, melted lard should be 
rubbed over the outside of the bag. This excludes the air. 
Sausage may be kept for some time in a large jar if a thin 
coat of hot lard is poured over the top. 

Mixed Sausage. — This may be made from a mixture of pork 
and beef in almost any proportion. It is the custom of many 




Fig. 129. — Grinding sausage meat the second time after seasoning is added. 

farms to kill three or four hogs and a beef during the winter for 
the year's supply of meat. When this plan is followed a nice 
supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. Sausage 
should not contain too much fat. A good proportion is two 
pounds of lean pork, one pound of fat pork, and one pound of 
lean beef. Chop together fine and season the same as for pork 
sausage. Pack in jars, muslin bags, or casings. Many people 
prefer this to clear pork sausage, as it is not so fat. 

Bologna Sausage. — To each ten pounds of lean beef use one 
pound of fat pork, or bacon if preferred. Chop finely and 
season with one ounce of salt to each four pounds of meat, one 
ounce of the best black pepper (ground, pure) to each six 



268 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

pounds of meat, and a little ground coriander. Stuff into cas- 
ings called beef "middles" or beef "rounds." If stuffed into 
middles, make the sausages ten or twelve inches long, and allow 
them to hang straight. If stuff'ed into rounds, make them twelve 
to fifteen inches long, and tie the ends together so as to form 
rings. Smoke for ten or twelve hours. Cook in boiling water 
until the sausages float. Dry on clean hay or straw in the sun, 
and hang away in a cool place until wanted. 

Casings, — Sausage casings are the intestines of hogs, cattle, 
or sheep which have been emptied and cleaned. They are turned 
inside out and soaked in a solution of lye or lime water, thor- 
oughly washed, and then salted down. When cleaned and put 
up by a reputable packer they are as good as when cleaned at 
home, and when they can be bought at a reasonable price (three 
cents a pound, perhaps) it hardly pays to clean them for home 
use. The casings from different animals are used for the vari- 
ous kinds of sausages. Beef casings are of three kinds — ' ' rounds, " 
made from the small intestines; "bungs," made from the large 
intestines, and "middles," made from that part of the entrails 
leading from the bung to the rectum. The "rounds" are used 
for bologna, the "bungs" for bologna, ham, and blood sausage, 
and the "middles" for bologna and summer sausage. Hog cas- 
ings are made from the small intestines of the hog, and are used 
mainly for pork link sausage. Sheep casings are from the small 
intestines of sheep, and are commonly used for wienerwurst and 
other small sausages. 

THE SMOKE-HOUSE 

The smoke-house should be eight or ten feet high to give 
the best results, and of a size suited to the amount of meat 
likely to be smoked. One six by eight feet will be large enough 
for ordinaiy farm use. Ample ventilation should be provided 
to carry off the warm air in order to prevent overheating 
the meat. Small openings under the eaves or a chimney in the 
roof will be sufficient if arranged so as to be easily controlled. 
A fire-pot outside of the house proper, with a flue through which 
the smoke may be conducted to the meat chamber, gives the best 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 269 

conditions for smoking. When this cannot well be arranged, a 
fire may be built on the floor of the house and the meat shielded 
by a sheet of metal. Where the meat can be hung six or seven 
feet above the fire this precaution need not be taken. The con- 
struction should be such as to allow the smoke to pass up freely 
over the meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is 
at the expense of fuel. 

Brick or stone houses are ])est, though the first cost is greater 
than if they are l)uilt of lumber. Large dry-goods boxes and 
even barrels may be made to serve as smoke-houses where only 
small amounts of meat are to be smoked. The care of meat in 
such substitutes is so much more difficult and the results so much 
less satisfactory that a permanent place should be provided if 
possible. 

The following specifications were furnished by Major Law- 
rence Foot, of Little Rock, Ark. From these figures one can get 
an idea of the approxizuate cost of a small smoke-house. In dif- 
ferent localities the price of material and labor will vary some- 
what. This bill of lumber and specifications are for a smoke- 
house ten feet by sixteen feet, roof one-third pitch, with dirt 
floor and brick foundation : 

675 brick, $8 per 1000 $.5.tO 

Three squares of composition roofing 6.00 

Sills, 2 pieces, 4x6 inches, IG feet long 64 feet 

Sills, 2 pieces, 4X6 inches, 10 feet long 40 feet 

Siding, 62 pieces, 1 X 12 inches, 12 feet long 620 feet 

Battens, 52 pieces, % X '^ inches, 10 feet long 154 feet 

Rafters, 11 pieces, 2X4 inches, 16 feet long 117 feet 

Joists, 7 pieces, 2X6 inches, 10 feet long 70 feet 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2X4 inches, 10 feet long 13 feet 

Plates, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 16 feet long 21 feet 

Sheeting 300 feet 

On sides of door, 2 pieces, 2X4 inches, 10 feet long 13 feet 

Door battens, 1 piece, 1X4 inches, 12 feet long 4 feet 

Total feet ($14 per 1000) 1416 feet 19.82 



Total cost of above ,.,..,, $31 .22 



270 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

The above lumber will permit the roof to extend one foot over 
the gables and one foot over the sides. The sheeting is not worth 
as much as the other lumber; $8.78 additional will make the 
house cost about $40. This $8.78 should pay for the carpenter's 
work (two days should do it), bricklayer, mortar, hinges, pad- 
lock, and nails. 

On the ridge of your roof you should have two ventilators, 
divided as follows: If house is sixteen feet long, one five feet 
from one end and the next five feet from the other ventilator; 
make same of galvanized sheet iron one foot long, in the shape 
of a pipe four inches in diameter ; let six inches be above the 
ridge and six inches below, and so built on the ridge (the tinner 
can do that) as not to let the rain leak into your house, l^se a 
loose wooden cover of sufficient weight to keep them (the covers) 
in place so as to fully open or partly close, but always keep them 
a little open in order to make a slight draught to let the smoke 
out slowly and give a cool smoke. A ventilator at the bottom of 
your door will help this slight draught, but the inside of same 
should be covered with close wire netting in order to keep out 
flies, and the same kind of netting tied tightly with wire should 
also be placed over and around your roof ventilators for the 
same purpose. The house should be absolutely dark, "light- 
proof." This will keep out flies, which breed skippers. Put 
your foundation in the ground below frost line. 

Fuel. — The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory or 
maple wood smothered with sawdust of the same material. Hard 
wood of any kind is preferable to soft wood. Resinous woods 
should never be used, as they are likely to impart bad flavors to 
the product. Corn-cobs are the best substitute for hard wood, 
and may be used if desired. Soft wood and corn-cobs give off 
large amounts of carbon in burning, and that is deposited on the 
meat, making it dark in color and rank flavored. Juniper berries, 
fragrant woods, and apple parings are sometimes added to the 
fire to flavor the meat. 

Filling the House. — Meat that is to be smoked should be re- 
moved from the brine two or three days before being put in the 
smoke-house. If it has been cured in a strong brine, it will be 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 271 

best to soak the pieces in cold water over night to prevent a 
crust of salt from forming- on the outside when drained. Wash- 
ing the meat in tepid water and scrubbing- clean with a brush is 
a good practice. The pieces should then be hung up to drain 
for a day or two. When drained, the}' may be hung in the house. 
All should be suspended from the joists and rafters below the 
ventilators, and should hang so that no two pieces come in con- 
tact, as this would prevent uniform smoking. 

Keeping up the Fire. — A slow fire may then be started, warm- 
ing up the meat gradually. During the winter months in cold 
climates it is best to keep the fire going continually until the 
smoking is complete, holding the temperature at about the same 
point. If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes cold 
and the smoke does not penetrate readily. This results in heavy 
smoke on the outside and very little on the inner portions of the 
meat. During the spring months and in the summer a light fire 
may be started every second or third day for two weeks, the 
meat being allowed to hang in the smoke-house until sufficiently 
colored. When the fire is kept going steadily and an even tem- 
perature is maintained, twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be 
required to finish one lot of meat. Smoke will not penetrate 
frozen meat, and it will be necessary to extract all frost from it 
before filling the house. The house should be kept dark at all 
times to prevent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently, 
the meat should be cooled by opening the ventilators or doors. 

KEEPING SMOKED MEATS 

When hard and firm the meat may be canvased or packed 
away for summer use. Smoked meat may also be left in the 
smoke-house for some time during moderate weather. The house 
should be kept perfectly dark and well enough ventilated to 
prevent dampness. A dry, cool cellar or an attic with free cir- 
culation will be a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all 
seasons if it is kept dark and flies are excluded. A fine way to 
keep the smoked meat is to place the meat, when smoking is 
finished, skin down, in a single layer on a hanging table in the 
smoke-house. The table should be hung with wires so the mice 



272 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

cannot reach the meat. They can easily do this when the tables 
are hung with cords. Sift wood ashes over these hanging tables, 
place on them only one layer of meat, skin down, and cover 
ends, sides, and top completely with sifted ashes at least two 
inches thick. Make ashes from such woods as poplar, ash, eot- 
tonwood, or such hard woods as hickory, maple, w^alnut, etc. 
The ashes should be sifted until as fine as flour, and the meat 
can remain untouched and only removed as needed for the 
table. Hams so treated will keep remarkably well for several 
years. It is generally conceded that a ham attains its full excel- 
lence when it is a year old. 

This method seems to follow out the method used by the 
Westphalians in smoking their hams, except that they allow them 
to hang until wanted for use, and once in a while, especially in 
damp weather, give them a little smoke. 

If to be kept only a short time, hams and bacon will need 
only to be hung out separately without covering. For longer 
keeping it will be necessary to wrap them first in heavy brown 
paper and then in burlap, canvas, or muslin and bury them in a 
grain bin or other suitable place, the object being to gain a uni- 
form temperature and to keep away insects. A coat of ground 
pepper rubbed into the meat before wrapping will be distasteful 
to them. For absolute safe-keeping for an indefinite period of 
time it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After 
it is smoked and has become dry on the surface it should be 
wrapped in parchment paper; or clean wrapping paper will do 
where parchment paper cannot be had. Then inclose in heavy 
muslin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinary lime 
whitew^ash, glue being added. Hang each piece out so that it 
does not come in contact with other pieces. Do not stack in 
piles. 

Recipe for Yellow Wash for Meat Canvas. — For 100 pounds 
hams or bacon take : 

3 pounds of barytes (barium 1 ounce of jrbie 

sulfate) 6 ounces of flour 

1 ounce of chrome yellow 
(lead chromate) 



PRESERVATION OF MEATS 273 

Half fill a pail with water and mix in the flour, dissolving 
all lumps thoroughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of water 
in a separate vessel and add the solution and the glue to the flour ; 
bring the whole to a boil and add the barytes slowly, stirring 
constantly. ]\lake the wash the day before it is required. Stir 
it frequently when using, and apply with a brush. 

Cooking Ham. — Hams cured without sugar in the salt to 
sweeten them will perhaps be better if boiled by the follow- 
ing recipe. The sugar placed in the kettle will in a great 
measure add to the sweetness of the ham, and if the ham has 
taken too much salt the sugar will help that fault also to some 
extent. 

A Comhination Virginia and Louisiana Recipe. — Immerse and 
soak the ham or shoulder in water the night before cooking (if 
one year old or over, soak twenty-four hours), then wash thor- 
oughly in tepid water. The ham is then placed, skin down, in 
a boiler full of boiling water. After putting in the water, add 
a teacupful each of sugar and vinegar. The temperature should 
then be allowed to lower slightly and the water just kept gently 
simmering several hours, with the top on the kettle. As the 
water boils out, add fresh boiling water, and always keep the 
boiler full. By putting it in boiling water the albumin is co- 
agulated at once on the surface of the ham and much of the 
juices and flavors kept in until cooked. When the ham is done 
the meat will leave the bone in the leg for about an inch. After 
the ham is cooked, take kettle and all off the stove, skim off the 
impurities, and let it cool off in the water in which it has cooked, 
as it will reabsorb part of the nutriment and juices which have 
been dra^^^l out during cooking, and the shrinkage is much less 
than if taken out immediately. 

BaJiing Ham. — The following day remove outside skin, stick 
with cloves one-half inch apart, and cover the ham well with 
brown sugar and bake, basting it frequently with cider. When 
it is well baked, take it out of the oven and baste another ten to 
twenty minutes in the pan on top of the stove. The sugar cnist 
should be quite brown and crisp when done, 
18 



274 SUCCESSFUJ. CANNING AND PKESERVING 

QUESTIONS 

1. What methods have ))een used for centuries in the preservation of meat? 

2. Why should meat be cured as soon as possible after the animal heat 

has been lost? 

3. Why can you not depend upon the result if frozen meat be cured or 

smoked ? 

4. Why is brine-cured meat more practical than dry-cured when the meat is 

cured at home? 

5. For what must the brine be watched closely, especially during warm 

Aveather? Wliat are the causes of the brine spoiling? What care must 
be given it and the meat in it if a brine is found to be spoiled? 
C. Whj must the meat be weighted so that every portion is kept under the 
brine? 

7. What cut of beef is usually selected as the nicer portion to dry? How 

should it be cut? 

8. Describe the process of curing and the time taken to accomplish it. 

When is the beef ready for use? 

9. What is meant by sugar-cured hams and bacon? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Anthony, G. A., and Asiibrook, F. G., 1917, " Killing Hogs and Curing 

Pork," Farmers' Bulletin No. 91.S, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

2. Bitting, A. W. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

19 IG. Published by Natl. Canners' Assoc, Washington, D. C. 30 cents. 

3. Boss, Andrew, " Meat on the Farm: Butchering, Curing, and Keeping." 

190G, Farmers' Bulletin 183, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture. Can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. T) cents. 

4. Cato AND) Varro, " Roman Farm Management," done into English, with 

notes of modern instances, by a Virginia Farmer, 1913. Published 
by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $2. 

5. Foot, Lawrence, " How to ]\Iake as Good Hams in Any State as are 

Made in Virginia " ; " How to Cure, Smoke, and Keeji Hams, 
Shoulders, and Bacon," 1915. Published by the Extension Division 
of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. 

6. Fox, Minnie C, "Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 

Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

7. Hamel, G. T., "Modern Practice of Canning Meats," 1911. Published 

by the Brecht Company, St. Louis, Mo. $5. 

8. Hausner, a., " The IManufacture of Preserved Foods and Sweetmeats," 

1912. Published by Scott, Greenwood & Son, London. $3. 

9. Lund, F. P., " Meat Canning," Circular No. 92, States Relations Ser- 

vice, Office of Extension Work South, United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



CHAPTER XVII 

USE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 

Fruits and vegetables would be welcome on our tables if it 
were only for their beauty of form and color, and for the pleas- 
ing variety of flavors which they give to our meals. Consider- 
ing, however, that besides being attractive to the eye and the 
taste they are absolutely necessaiy for health and for physical 
well-being, it seems worth while to make every effort to use them 
as freely as we can afford to. It is the part of wisdom, also, to 
preserve them in times of plenty for use in times of scarcity and 
high prices. 

These foods should not be undervalued because they cannot 
supply all that is needed in the diet. They cannot take the 
place of meat or milk, to be sure, or of bread or butter, but they 
are as important in their places as these other more substantial 
foods are in theirs. 

The healthful diet, as a whole, should supply a large number 
of substances, which, for convenience, may be here grouped 
under four heads : 

First, fuel. This is needed by the body much as the locomo- 
tive needs coal as a source of energy or of power to do work. The 
greater part of the fuel of the body is provided by fats, sugar, 
and starch. 

Second, protein. This, like fat, sugar, and starch, is a fuel, 
but, unlike them, it supplies many of the materials needed by 
the body of the child for making new tissues, and by the bodies 
of the grown persons for making good the losses in the bodily 
machinery that are constantly taking place as the result of the 
wear and tear of work. 

Third, non-burnable or mineral-building materials. These 
substances, like protein, are needed by the young for growth 
and by all as a means of keeping the body in good repair. 

275 



276 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND TIIESERVING 

Fourth, certain newly discovered substances which are be- 
lieved to be growth-promoting and body-regulating, and there- 
fore needed to keep the human machine in good running order. 
These substances correspond with the cleaning materials and the 
lubricating oils used on the locomotive. They neither serve as 
fuel nor enter into the structure of the body, but have an im- 
portant part to play in its operation. 

In considering the necessary nutrients of the body in the 
order in which they are listed above, we come first to those which 
cannot be supplied in any very large measure by fresh fruits and 
vegetables. Apples, oranges, turnips, asparagus, and, in fact, 
all the fruits and vegetables contain large amounts of water, 
usually eight parts out of ten by weight. In some cases, par- 
ticularly those of the succulent vegetables like lettuce, cucum- 
bers, and tomatoes, water constitutes over 90 per cent of the 
weight. They have the same relation to butter, oil, and other 
fats as fuels for the body as soft wood or paper has to coal 
when considered as fuels for a locomotive. Even those who eat 
fruits and vegetables very freely seldom get from them, in the 
course of a day, miore than a tenth of the energy they need for 
their work. 

Nor can fruits and vegetables be used as the chief source of 
protein. This is best supplied by milk in the case of the child, 
and by milk, meat, eggs, and cheese in the case of grown per- 
sons. Among the foods usually classed as vegetables, only the 
dried legumes — navy beans, peanuts, soy beans, and others — pro- 
vide much protein. Taken as a whole, the vegetables seldom 
provide more than five per cent of all the protein needed in the 
course of a day (Plate III). 

The statement of the uses to which fruits and vegetables 
cannot be put clears the ground for an understanding of their 
very great usefulness in other particulars. As sources of min- 
eral-building substances, particularly iron, they are invaluable. 
This should not be taken to mean that without fruits and vege- 
tables the diet would be entirely lacking in iron, for it is pres- 
ent in large amounts in lean meats, egg > oiks, cereals, and other 
common foods. In these last-mentioned substances, however, iron 



PLATE III 



U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Office cjf Experiment Stations 

A C.True: Director 



Prepared by 

C.FLANGWORTHY 

Expert in Charge of Nutrition Investigations 



€@M]IP@SOTl]©n^ ©IF W©©E m/ATWm/AU 



Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

Water; 5 8.9 
Carbo borates: 29.1 



Water 



Fuel Value 
1.Sq. In. Equals 
1000 Calories 



Fat:0 




^^ /ater:l£.6 
FVoteinTj 



FVotein: 9.1 'l^U — A5h:2.0 

FuElL VALUL: 



Carboh'yarates 




Carbohydrates:/. 



Water: 89.2- 



740 CAL0RIE5 PER PDUMD 1600 CALDRIK PER POUND 

j,'^^A5h:0.8 

-Pat: 0.3 

■^rotein: 2.3 

Full valul 

c 

195 CALORIES PCR POUND 

mum, (gi^inKi 

EDIBLE PORTION 

FVotein: 3. 




Water: 75 .4 




Carbohydrates:19.7 

-Ash: 0.7 



Fat:1.1 



(Courtesy, Office of Home Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Food Chart 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 377 

is combined with a large amount of fuel in the form, sometimes 
of protein, sometimes of starch, sugar, or fat. If, therefore, 
meats, eggs, cereals, etc., are eaten in large enough amounts to 
supply iron, they provide too much fuel for the body, and this, 
if not burned out to supply energy, is likely to be deposited m 
the form of fat. Unless fruits and vegetables are freely eaten, 
therefore, one of two unfortunate conditions is likely to exist: 
Either the diet will be deficient in iron, or it will be too "hearty." 
It is because of their very wateriness that fruits and vegetables 
can be freely used as a source of iron and other mineral sup- 
plies without overloading the body with other substances. 

In the diet of children fruits and vegetables are particularly 
useful. Milk, which is an indispensable part of their food, con- 
tains plenty of lime and some iron. The iron, however, is in- 
sufficient for health. Soups and other dishes made out of milk 
and spinach or other vegetables are therefore important items 
in the diet of children. 

Of the many other ways in which fruits and vegetables help 
to keep the body in order it will be sufficient to speak here only 
of two or three. First, they give bulk to the diet, and for this 
reason are believed to have an important part to play in the 
digestion of other foods. Their delicate, fibrous framework con- 
sists of a substance called cellulose, which is not digested. The 
cellulose, therefore, remains unchanged as it passes through the 
digestive organs and serves to prevent other foods from settling 
down into compact masses. Whether this is the whole explana- 
tiou of the laxative effect of these foods or not is still uncertain. 
It is probable that the mild acids and mineral substances which 
all of them contain contribute toward the same end. However 
that may lie, they serve in some way to keep the food from 
accumulating in the intestines until it undergoes undesirable 
decomposition. 

There is also a theory that fruits and vegetables have an im- 
portant part to play in offsetting certain substances that are 
produced in the digestion of meat, poultry, fish, eggs, etc. A cer- 
tain amount of these last-mentioned foods is needed for body- 
building purposes. Without fruits and vegetables, however, they 



278 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

would, according to the theory, be left in the unfortunate posi- 
tion of having performed a great service to the body and then of 
being obliged to injure it. Accompanied by fruits and vege- 
tables, they do their beneficent work and then are transformed 
into harmless substances in preparation for being eliminated from 
the body. 

It is now generally believed that the more meat and eggs a per- 
son eats the more fruits and vegetables he needs. To think, there- 
fore, that because one has eaten a large amount of meat he needs 
no vegetables or fruit is a mistake, for under these circumstances 
he needs vegetables and fruits more than if a small amount of 




Fig. 1;S(). — Ro;i.st witli vfjictablc inacedoine garnish. 

meat only had been eaten (Fig. 180). In a heavy meal of meat, 
therefore, allowance should be made for fruits and vegetables. 
If necessary, this should be done by the cutting down of fats and 
sweets. A vegetable salad or fruit for dessert follows more 
logically after a heavy meat course than such desserts as suet 
puddings or pie (Fig. 131). 

It should be remembered, also, that while such foods as 
boiled rice, macaroni, and hominy are often eaten with meat or 
combined with it in the making of extremely attractive dishes, 
they are not substitutes for potatoes in the diet. When one of 
them is served with meat the housekeeper should think of it 
not as a substitute for vegetables, but rather as taking the place 



FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 279 

of part of the bread usually eaten at the meal, for rice, macaroni, 
or hominy has exactly the same uses in the diet that bread has. 
She should, therefore, take particular pains to supply some other 
vegetable in the form of a salad or of fruit for dessert in meals 
which contain meat but no potatoes. 

Finally, fruits and vegetables are an important source of 
certain recently discovered substances, sometimes called vita- 
mines, which are thought to promote growth in children and 
to have an important part to play in keeping all people, old as 
well as young, in good physical condition. 

Fig. 131. Fig. 132. 





Fig. 131. — Fruit macedoine. 
Fig. 132. — A glass of currant jelly. 

What has been said so far about the nutritive value of 
fruits and vegetables applies to them when they are fresh and 
undried. After they have been dried they are no longer watery 
foods, but contain a very large percentage of nourishing ma- 
terial. Beans and j^eas, when dried, contain more protein than 
meat does, and even after they have been soaked in water and 
cooked they are considered good substitutes for meat and eggs. 
It is well, therefore, for the housekeeper, Avhen she plans meals, 
to class the dried legumes with the meats. 

The well-ordered meal contains good bread, or a cereal food 



280 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND TRESERVING 



served in some other attractive way ; a little i'ood from the meat 
or meat substitutes, enough to insure sufficient protein ; a little 
butter or other fat to give richness ; a little sugar or other 
sweet to furnish flavor, and, last but not least, a vegetable or a 
fruit (Fig. 131). These five kinds of food should all be repre- 
sented in the diet at all times. The varied diet which contains all 
of these five kinds of food is needed to make a perfect ration. If 
one is lacking, the diet will be deficient in some thing needed for 
health or palatability. The time was when the winter diet was 

1 




Fig. 133A. 



-Canned asparagus and pepper 
salad. 



Fig. 13.3B. — Loc-cabin salad made from 
canned beans. 



always one-sided because of the absence of fruit and vegetables. 
That time is now passed, or should be, for with our present knowl- 
edge and skill in canning and preserving fruits and vegetables 
we may easily have a complete ration all the year round 
(Figs. 133A andB). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the substances that should be included in a healthful diet, — stating 

the use of each in the body. 

2. Why are fruits and vegetables absolutely necessary for health and 

physical well-being? 

3. What constitutes a balanced meal when a large portion of meat is served? 

4. Name some substitutes for bread and outline two comljinations for a 

meal which contains these substitutes. 

5. What newly discovered substance has been found in fruits and vege- 

tables? What is the function of these substances? 

6. What dried vegetables can be substituted for meat? 

7. What is contained in a well-ordered meal? 

8. How can you plan to have this complete ration all the year? 



FRUITS AXD VEGETABLES IN THE DIET 38 1 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Barrows, Anna, and Lincoln, M. J., " Home Science Cook Book," 

1904. Published by Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, Mass. ^1. 

2. Bitting, A. \V. and K. G., " Canning and How to Use Canned Foods," 

1910. Published by the National Canners' Association, Washington, 
D. C. 30 cents. 
;5. "'Creole Cook Book," 1914. The Picayune, New Orleans, La. $1.25. 

4. Davidis, Henriette, " Practical Cook Book," 1897. Published by C. N. 

Casper, Milwaukee, Wis. $1.25. 

5. F.VRMER, Fannie Merritt, " Boston Cooking School Cook Book," 1907. 

Published by Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. $1.80. 
ti. Fox, Minnie C, " Blue Grass Cook Book," 1904. Published by Fox, 
Duffield & Co., New York City, N. Y. $1.50. 

7. French, Allen, " The Book of Vegetables and Garden Herbs," 1870. 

Published by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $1.75. 

8. Hunt, Caroline L., " Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of 

Other Staple Foods," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 871, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. United States Food Leaf- 
lets, Nos. I to 20, by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the 
LT. S. Food Administration, Washington, D. C* 

9. Kinne, Helen, and Cooley, Anna M., " Foods and Houseliold Manage- 

ment," 1915. The Macmillan Company, New York City, N. Y. $1.10. 

10. Lippincott's Home Manual on Food. 

11. Spring, Helen M., "Individual Recipes," 1909. Published by John C. 

Winston Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 25 cents. 

12. Soutiiworth, May E., " 101 Mexican Dishes," 1914. Published by Paul 

Elder & Co., San Francisco, Calif. 75 cents. 

13. " Uncle Sam's Cook Book," a price list of bulletins on Anunican foods 

and cooking. United States Government. Superintendent of Docu- 
ments, Government Printing Office, ^^'ashington, D. C. 

14. Wilson, Elizabeth L., and Huggins, Mollie, "Good Things to Eat." 

1909. Published by tlie Publishing House of the M. E. Church, 
South, Smith & Lamar, Agents, Nashville, Tcnn. $3. 

15. Rose, Mary Schwartz, " Feeding the Family." Published by Macmillan 

Company, New York City, N. Y. $2.10. 
Ifl. Wessling, Hannah, "Use of Wheat Flour Substitutes in Bread Mak- 
ing," 1918, Circular No. A-9I, States Relations Service, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

* Other information available on this and related subjects can be 
obtained from the same source. Ask for Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 256, 
Preparation of Vegetables for the Table; 712, School Lunches; 717^ Fond for 
Y^oung Children; 808, How to Select Foods, I. What the Body Needs; 817, 
How to Select Foo<ls, II. Cereal Foods, and 824, How to Select Foods, III. 
Foods Rich in Protein. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 

Canning Club and Home Demonstration Work is eoncUicted 
under the cooperative agreement between the several state col- 
leges of agrienlture and the United States Department of Agri- 
culture. In the South all this work is directed by the organiza- 
tion of state and county agents. In the North and West much 
of the rural home demonstration work is organized as a part of 
the county farm bureau or county extension service. The mem- 
bership in this organization consists of representative men and 
women who are interested in agriculture and home making:. Some 
bureaus charge a nominal membership fee or raise funds from 
other sources to supplement state and federal appropriations. In 
this farm bureau there is an executive committee and under this 
executive conmiittee are several committees representing the 
various phases of the work. In the executive committee there is a 
president, a vice-president, secretary and treasurer. After the 
county program has been selected project leaders are appointed 
to represent the work of this executive committee. This com- 
mittee considers general administrative questions and program of 
work. The county agent, home demonstration agent, and cIuIj 
leader are responsible to this committee for the work they do in 
the county. 

There is a community committee consisting of a chairman 
and two to six members. Each member is selected because of 
special titness to direct some important part of the community 
program of work. 

County project committees are automatically formed with the 
executive committee project leader as chairman and the com- 
munity leaders as members. Thus one committee considers espe- 
cially the work for men and farms, another committee the work 
for women and homes, and still another looks after boys' and girls' 
282 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 383 

club work. All of these committees cooperate and usually work 
from the same office and are represented in their activities by- 
cooperative paid leaders. 

The basic principle of such an orgranization is the fact that 
it is the work of the people and that there is one rural prob- 
lem involving agriculture, home making, and boys' and girls' 
club work. 

There are now county leaders for boys' and girls' club work 
in over half of the counties in the northern and western ter- 
ritory, besides about GOO paid home demonstration agents. In 
the 419 counties organized in the South in 1916 there 
were about 60,000 girls enrolled to carry on canning and poultry 
club work, together with related activities in sewing, cooking, and 
gardening. 

Aim. — One of the objects of the work is to develop a skill that 
shall increase the economic earnings of girls and women in the 
country. Their home has many functions not performed by the 
city home. It is a producing as well as a consuming center. Its 
contribution to the income of the farm, especially in saving the 
waste and expense of conducting farming operations, often meas- 
ures the difference between profitable and unprofitable farming. 
The skill and business ability of farm housewives and children 
are a notable contribution to the economic resources of the 
farm. In many cases incomes must be increased before stand- 
ards of living can be raised or progressive community enterprises, 
fostered. Proceeding upon this basis, the work in the South 
has added materially to the wealth, health, and happiness of 
country people. 

Financing the Work. — In the beginning, generous financial 
help from the General Education Board — the corporate trustees 
of a fund of more than $50,000,000 given by John D. Rockefeller 
for educational purposes — made possible the free development of 
this work. This was soon followed by state and county appro- 
priations. In 1914 Congress made appropriations to take the 
place of those being made by the General Education Board, and 
the Smith-Lever Extension Act of 1914 brought its first Federal 



284 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

appropriations in 1915, thns g'iving' permanent support to demon- 
stration work in agriculture and home economies. In 1917 there 
was in the 15 Southern states an organization of al)out 500 
counties supervised by 13 state, 21 assistant state, 15 district, and 
494 county agents, making a total of 548. 

In April, 1918, there were about 1035 Home Demonstration 
agents employed in the Southern States. 

During 1914-1915 in forty states slightly over $320,000 was 
spent in home economics demonstrations, while in 1916-1917 
in forty-eight states $750,000 was allotted, an increase of over 
130 per cent in two years. This money was derived from the 
United States Department of Agriculture, the state colleges of 
agriculture, Federal and state cooperative extension act funds, 
and county and other local sources. In 1916 the allotment of funds 
for extension work for farm women was derived from the follow- 
ing sources: $107,000 from funds appropriated directly to the 
United States Department of Agriculture, $260,000 from Federal 
extension act funds, $120,000 from state extension act funds, 
$32,000 from direct state appropriations in addition to the 
amount appropriated by the state to offset the Federal coopera- 
tive extension funds, $178,000 from county appropriations, and 
about $80,000 from other miscellaneous sources. 

Initial Work. — Following the development of United States 
Farm Demonstration Work as a means of instructing farm men 
and subsequently of boys' corn clubs, because boys also insisted 
upon being enrolled as " demonstrators," there was a very in- 
sistent demand for activities for girls which should give them 
opportunity to carry on skilful work in their homes and enter into 
friendly contest with one another. The opportunity to influence 
and instruct adults through the interests of their children was 
recognized from the first. 

Activities which have fundamental connection with every 
country home, and which involve the need for accurate informa- 
tion and skill in doing, were selected. During 1910 some girls' 
tomato clubs were organized in South Carolina and Virgnnia, with 
the aid of teachers and other school officials. These girls culti- 



CANNJNG CLUI5 ORGANIZATION 285 

vated tenth-acre plots of tomatoes, following some simple in- 
structions furnished by the Office of Fann Demonstration Work, 
and canned their vegetables under the instruction of one of its 
representatives. The results of this experiment were made the 
basis during the next year for the organization of from two to 
four counties each in the states of South Carolina, Virginia, and 
Mississippi, under the leadership of women who were appointed 
to take charge of each state and with the aid of a few county 
workers whose services were secured for brief periods in the can- 
ning season. In 1012 eleven states had workers in charge with 
160 counties organized, and in 1917 every Southern state was 
organized, and similar plans are rapidly developing in the North 
and West. 

The State Agent. — In the beginning of the girls' canning club 
work a state agent or organizer was appointed. To h'. i her in 
each county organized, a capable woman was secured for about two 
months in the year to hold the canning demonstrations in the 
summer and give what volunteer help she could in spring and fall. 
The clubs were organized and the first instruction was given 
through the schools where the girls could be met in groups. Cor- 
respondence and an occasional visit from the county agent had 
to suffice as instruction and supervision until the canning season 
opened, when regular field meetings, in way of canning demon- 
strations for groups of members, were held at central points in the 
county. Again in autumn, the collecting of results and the hold- 
ing of an exhibit of canned products were largely volunteer work 
of the county agent. The results which these workers obtained 
were so notable that in a short time this general plan was adopted 
permanently, the period of employment for the county agent in- 
creasing rapidly to nine or twelve months. 

The girls' canning clubs, with a tenth-acre garden as the basis 
of each individual's work, have made possible a gradually evolved 
four years' program of work which thousands of girls have eagerly 
entered upon. Each year finds a larger percentage of these girls 
continuing the program and finishing the season's activities. As 
in all real demonstration work, the girl becomes a "demonstra- 



•286 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



tor." She agrees to follow instructioiis and use approved meth- 
ods ; her work and its results being accomplished with more skill, 

greater efficiency, and show- 
ing finer quality than that 
which has heretofore been 
known, become an object 
lesson for others and the 
center of influence in the 
home {tnd community Each 
season brings its characteristic 
activity of natural work, ac- 
companied by the stimulus of 
individual ownership and 
group contests in skill and 
definite accomplishment. 

Four-year Program of 
Work.—Since the mastery of 
some definite phase of work 
is essential for each year, a 
systematic program has been 
Avorked out. During the first 
year the girls select tomatoes 
as their main crop, learning 
a great deal about the cultiva- 
tion of this vegetable and how 
to market both fresh and 
canned products. They ac- 
quire considerable horticul- 
tural skill in managing their 
gardens. The financial rec- 
ords they keep give a good 
business training. For the 
public demonstrations which they give for the benefit of their 
communities, these girls find it necessary to make attractive 
uniforms, aprons, caps, towels, holders, etc. This gives sewing a 
very definite place in their work, and it is done for a special 
purpose rather than for the sake of a' lesson. 




Fig. 135. — "The home women of the coun- 
try, if they will give their minds fully to this 
vital subject of food conservation and train 
themselves in household thrift, can rnake 
of the housewife's apron a uniform of national 
significance." — D. F. Houston, Secretary of 
Agriculture. 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 



287 



An instance of the use of such uniforms is given in tlie report 
of a county agent, as follows : 

" The meeting at Pheba was especially interesting. Sixteen canning 
club girls in white uniform, cap, and apron gave a program with club songs 
and yells. Afterwards they served a two-course luncheon to the mothers 
and teachers. The latter were especially interested and announced their 
intention of going back to their schools and have their club members make 
caps and aprons and learn the club songs." 




V comfortable garden uniform. 



The use of these unifonns has a tendency to make popular 
suitable working clothes for girls and women. Advanced girls 
continue their sewing by making uniform dresses of appropriate 
design and material. In a number of the states they have chosen 
pink or blue chambray for their dress material, each member hav- 



288 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



ing the privilege of choosing either color she prefers. With this 
combination of attractive pink and blue dresses, with white uni- 
form aprons and caps, a group of these girls, with their county- 
agents in all-white, resemble a huge bunch of sweet peas. Tan 
or gray linen crash makes very neat uniforms when worn with 
the white aprons. In some sections near the coast where colored 
material quickly fades, white uniforms are more satisfactory for 




Fig. 137. — Another style of garden uniform. 

canning work. Of course, the uniform dress worn for this work 
should be light weight, and of such material as can be often and 
easily washed. In 1916, in 419 organized counties in the 15 South- 
ern States, 21,172 girls reported the making of 23,7G7 aprons, 
caps, holders, and towels, and 3875 uniform dresses to be worn for 
public demonstrations (Fig. 135). 

The white dresses are not appropriate for the garden work 
among vines and dirt, as they soil easily and are likely to become 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 



289 



stained. The gardening uniform which has been adopted in some 
sections is the bloomer and middy blouse combination. The 
regular gymnasium bloomers are suitable for this purpose. Women 
working in agriculture because of war conditions abroad adopted 
the bloomers for reason of comfort, convenience, and economy. 
The bloomer overalls for women are on the market in America, 
and have been adopted in several factories (Figs. 136, 137, 
and 138). 

An attractive gardening set consisting of an apron for tools 
and a kneeling pad might be made of matting, burlap, denim, 




k; loS -(. iariluu unitorru. 



oilcloth, or heavy canvas. Matting lined with brown denim and 
bound with red tape makes an attractive color combination 
and is very suitable material, because the color does not show 
soil easily. 

This equipment is easily made and will be found most useful 
in the garden, especially during the transplanting seasons. The 
making of the garden kneeling pad and apron gives opportunity 
for teaching something about sewing and will arouse more interest 
in garden work. The garden pad is used to kneel upon when 
planting seeds and transplanting plants. This work can be done 
19 



290 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

with more ease and eomfoi-t, and the nse of the pad and apron 
will proteet the clothing a great deal when working in the garden. 
The pocket arrangement in the pad is convenient for carrying the 
small i)lants which are to be transplanted. The apron is a com- 
panion piece and is used for cariying tools — planting stick, 
pruning shears, trowel, and garden line. A small pocket for seeds 
might be stitched on the front of the middle pocket to make the 
apron a little more complete (Fig. 163, p. 341). 

During the second year two vegetable crops are cultivated, 
these being chosen with definite regard to home needs and mar- 
keting conditions. In addition to the canned vegetables, many 
clubs market soup mixtures, sauces, and special products whicli 
have been originated for them, like Dixie relish and B. S. Chutney. 
Sewing is continued in the making of uniform dresses of attrac- 
tive and apjiropriate design and material. 

During the next two years perennial gardens are started and 
either small fruits or perennial vegetables, suited to the locality 
or especially attractive for market, are planted. JNIany girls 
who have proceeded thus far are ready to make a reputation for 
special products from Southern fruits, such as the fig, scupper- 
nong, May haw% and guava, or to succeed admirably with the 
Spanish pepper, for which a great demand exists. The prepara- 
tion of their vegetable products for the table and contests in 
bread making are given considerable place. In many instances 
wdnter gardening is carried on extensively. 

With the increased supply of wholesome food, by means of 
the fall garden, canning and poultry club products, the agent has 
a wonderful opportunity in the fall and winter to get into the 
kitchens and teach the preparation and combination of these 
products for serving. 

SUGGESTED PROGRAM FOR LOCAL GIRLS' CLUB MEETINGS ' 

Fehruary 

Call meeting to order. Organize. 

Distribute daily reeord books, explain same and urge tbe im])ortance 
of attending all elub meetings, local, spring and fall rallies, institutes, 
and fairs. 

Discuss soil best suited to tomatoes, Bordeaux mixture, construction of 
hotbed and cold frame (show model, if possible), and choice of seed. 

' By Miss Minnie L. Garrison, County Agent, Edgemoor, S. C. 



CANNING (I.UJJ ORGANIZATION 291 

March 

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes (review of last lesson). 
Reports of work done since last meeting. 

Measurement of one-tenth acre plot and preparation. 

Transplanting to cold frames, etc. 

Bookbinding for cook books, histories, etc. 

Game or club yell. 

April 

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 

Vary with bread and poultry program. 

Bread. — Judging bread. 

Distribute helpful bulletins. 

Refreshments — eggs in nest or goldenrod. 

Poultry. — Talks on poultry, breeds, hatcliing, etc. 

Demonstrate candling or testing eggs. 

Decorate Easter eggs or liave egg hunt. Remind girls of true meaning 
of Easter. 

Kodak pictures. 

May 

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 

Plain sewing, based on uniform cap and apron. Apron party. 

Distribute copies of club songs and yells. Practice same for spring 
meeting. 

Other instructions concerning special meeting. 

June 
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. IMinutes. Reports on benefits de- 
rived from having attended spring meetings. 
Study cultural instructions. 
Visit plot and give comments. 

Demonstrations. Pruning and staking, repeat Bordeaux spray, etc. 
Discuss cook books, recipes, and drawings for same. 
Serve salads, utilizing vegetables. 
Kodak pictures, music. 

July 
Fireloss cooker. Canning delnonstration. 
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 
List of canning supplies, literature prepared in advance. 
Canning demonstration, using fruit and vegetables. 

Emphasize grading, sterilization, full pack, attractive pack and quality. 
Dinner. 

Get together, talk over morning's work. Demonstrate jelly making. 
Suggest " Canning Christmas Presents." 
Distribute literature before leaving. 
Songs and yells. 



292 SUCCESSFUL CANNINCi AND PRESERVING 

Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 
Practice canning special products. 
Basket making. 

September 
Literary program. Short business meeting. 
Roll-call — answer witii current events, etc. Magazine article or report 
on interesting library book. 

Read sketch of Doctor Knapp's life. 

Word building, using letters composing club motto. 

Puzzle — dissected labels. 

Show pictures of good exhibits with projector if possible. 

October 
Call meeting to order. Roll-call. Minutes. 
Go over records again. Sum up. 
Demonstrate labelling, packing, etc., for fairs. 
Judging canned goods. 
Assign work for girls during fair. 

Cooperation Between School and Home. — It can be easily 

seen that all of these activities are carried on in the home and 
form an integral part of the life of the girls themselves, but every- 
where the schools are taking a very active part in promoting this 
work. The cooperation of the teacher is always essential. 

In each comnuinity organized the girls are selected and en- 
rolled through the school early enough to undertake gardening 
After the club members have been enrolled and they have selected 
plots for their one-tenth acre gardens the teacher can render valu- 
able assistance. With her aid the girls study the instructions for 
the purpose of securing information as to how to carry on the 
work at home. The teacher giving the best cooperation correlates 
the work with regular lessons in reading, arithmetic, language, 
drawing, and really makes it a part of the school life. She often 
organizes the members into clubs and holds the first meeting at 
the school. Here they are taught the construction of a hotbed 
or cold frame, and sometimes one is built on the south side of the 
school building ; plants are raised in it for the home gardens, and 
a number of lessons are based on the planting and care of these 
beds. When these plants have grown large and strong enough 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 293 

to tiansplaiit, a meeting is planned at the home of some club mem- 
ber, where they learn the principles of transplanting. 

Club work furnishes constant oi^portunity to enliven school- 
room routine with vital interests and fine motives for study. 
Man}^ instances of the helpful reaction which these clubs have 
upon the schools have been reported. In a similar way they give 
the schools a better opportunity to bring influences to bear di- 
rectly upon the homes. 

Community Activities. — By the time school closes the work 
has reached an interesting stage and the club members continue 
to work together. At this season the county agent meets with 
the clubs on the one-tenth acre plot, gives cultural instructions, 
and makes preparation for the canning work. Midsummer brings 
the canning season, and here again at the home of the club mem- 
ber having the first ripe tomatoes the girls of the community 
meet to work together, with the county agent demonstrating how 
to take each step in the canning, and the girls doing the actual 
work under her supervision. After one or two such demonstra- 
tions the girls acquire sufficient experience to give a public 
demonstration in canning, at which the neighbors are taught 
what the girls are alreadj^ skilled in doing. 

Cooperation for community development or benefit to the 
group is now beginning among farm people. Club members 
often undertake it more readily than their parents. 

Instances of neighborly cooperation are not rare. One county 
agent reported that upon visiting one little girl, named Gladys, 
she found that she had been ill for two weeks and unable to set 
out her tomato plants, which were fast becoming too large to be 
transplanted easily. I^pon the agent 's visit to the next home she 
reported the instance, and a member of the same club immediately 
suggested that they get together and do the transplanting. In a 
short time six girls met at Gladys's home. The little sick girl 
was able to be carried out in a chair and sit in the shade to watch 
the others happy at work transplanting the tomatoes for her. 
Words failed and tears came instead when she tried to thank her 
friends for this kindness. 

A county agent reported that the home of one of her club 



294: SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND rRESEIlVING 

members was destroyed by fire. Before she had opportunity to 
visit this community, the president of the club had called a meet- 
ing and its members had arranged to give a "shower" of canned 
products to the club member to whose family this loss had oc- 
curred. 

Not only is individual initiative aroused, but elements of lead- 
ership are developed in country communities where they are most 
needed. As a means of developing leadership, many state schools 
give short courses for prize-winning club members from the 
various counties. These girls have proved their efficiency by suc- 
cessful work and already possess qualities of leadership. TTpon 
being given definite instruction in even a few lines of work they 
can be inspired to return to their communities and extend to 
others the same aid. These girls frequently become the officers 
of their clubs and the local representatives through whom the 
county agent works in developing many community enterprises. 

During one short course each prize winner gave the story of 
her year's work and told how she spent the money earned from 
her tenth-acre garden. One girl had for two successive years paid 
her expenses at the county high school out of her earnings ; an- 
other was helping her brother through college ; another purchased 
a fine cow, and still another enabled her father to hold his cotton 
until spring by making her funds available for certain family 
expenses. In every instance the business experience was one 
which reflected dignity and judgment. 

The County Agent. — It can be readily seen that the centers 
of influence in demonstration work are the farms and homes 
where individuals, perhaps a modest little girl or quiet, home- 
loving woman, make the demonstrations which teach a lesson to an 
entire community. This lesson carries greater weight and is 
more convincing than if made by a skilled specialist from a dis- 
tant institution, but it can be accomplished successfully only 
when there exists an organization whose leaders have won perma- 
nent place in the confidence and affection of the people with 
whom they work. In the organization of home demonstration 
work in the South the county agent holds this important place. 
A state agent with headquarters at the State College of Agri- 



CANNING CLUB OKGANIZATION 295 

culture directs the work, aud frequently technical help is given 
by specialists who come from the same institution. The state 
agent is, in an important way, the connecting link between the 
county agent and the force of extension workers whose head- 
quarters are at the state colleges and in the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture. 

The county agent becomes the personal medimn through which 
information is furnished and by whom skilful demonstrations 
are directed. The efficient county agent must be a leader and an 
organizer. She must possess fine sympathy and good judgment. 
Her knowledge of people and conditions in her county must be 
wide and accurate. To all this there must be added good training 
in home economics and a constantly increasing knowledge of the 
lighter branches of agriculture, such as horticulture, dairying, 
and poultry raising. 

Demonstration work for women has made most rapid progress 
where preceded by at least a year of work among girls. Definite 
results are more quickly obtained among young people who have 
high enthusiasm and who, fortunately, lack experiences which 
suggest failure and who are without a sense of caution which 
previous failures suggest to the mature mind when new enter- 
prises or new methods are proposed. Then, too, the mother's 
gratitude for training given to her daughter paves the way for 
active acceptance on her part of instruction and help. 

Demonstrations Among Women. — Improvement in manage- 
ment of rural homes has not kept pace with that of the farm itself, 
nor can it be compared to the management of the city home from 
which has been taken every creative industry. For these reasons, 
one line of demonstration which has been eagerly undertaken 
by hundreds of women is the making and use of labor-saving 
devices and securing more labor-saving equipment from the out- 
side. The economic needs of women on farms demand greater 
skill in the constructive activities which are, fortunately, theirs 
to manage and from which the opportunity for financial income 
and the satisfaction of creative work of high order rightfully 
come. Therefore, demonstrations in poultry raising, home dairy- 
ing, etc., are among the first to be undertaken. 



j?!)6 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND I'HKSKKVING 

A form of organization which has been found very successful 
is that for the cooperative marketing of products whicli results 
from certain demonstrations. Of these, some of tlie most success- 
ful have been organized for the purpose of disposing of poultry 
products. In one county nine egg circles sold 4370 dozen eggs 
in a few months. Tlie products were so carefully graded that bet- 
ter prices were secured for them than liad been received by indi- 
viduals before carrying on the work cooperatively. 

Demonstrations involving the preparation of food for the 
table, and sanitary measures, are also pojiular. While the reports 
do not show the extent of the work, it is interesting, however, to 
note that during the year 1916 the county women agents enrolled 
and instructed 37,255 girls in canning clubs, 8911 girls in poultry 
clubs, 21,083 women as home demonstrators, and 2211 women in 
poultry clubs. The number of clubs organized for women during 
this year was 963 ; a total of 27,260 meetings was held, with an 
attendance of 476,366. The number of girls reporting results 
from canning work was 21,605. Of this number, 7058 made dem- 
onstrations in cooking club products and 11,384 made bread 
demonstrations. There were reported 350 scholarships won as 
prizes by the club girls. The total number of containers of fruit 
and vegetables packed by the women and girls under demonstra- 
tion methods was 3,318,481, with a total value of $669,839.56. 
The total number of winter garden demonstrations by the girls 
and women was 7649. A total number of 37 egg circles was or- 
ganized by the women and girls, and the total value of poultry 
products was $53,952.76. 

The following improvements or devices were made or installed 
under the leadership of the women agents : 3058 homemade fire 
less cookers have come into common use, accompanied in many 
instances by the purchase of kerosene stoves. There have been 
reported over 2000 demonstrations made in the use of a homemade 
iceless refrigerator by which the problems of the sanitary han- 
dling of milk and improvement in butter making are largely 
solved. A good beginning has been made in installing 264 home 
water systems, 57 inexpensive homemade shower-baths, and a 
number of improved sewage disposals. 



CANNING CLUB ORCANIZATION 297 

In a uiimber of counties demonstrations along sanitary lines 
were begun with campaigns against tiies which involved the mak- 
ing of 4505 fly-traps in a short time, followed by other active 
measures against this pest. One thousand two hundred and 
seventy houses have been screened as a result of these "fly cam- 
paigns. ' ' 

The making of a few practical devices has been a great stim- 
ulus to a large number of people who have contributed clever 
ideas and useful models for many kinds of work. County agents 
rapidly receive demands for advice in arranging kitchens and 
adding built-in conveniences. To meet these demands, extension 
specialists in farm mechanics are devoting considerable time to 
assisting the county agents with specifications and plans. 

IMany labor-saving devices have been made or installed in more 
conveniently arranged kitchens. The following were also made 
in 1916 under the supervision of the women county agents : 

Kitchen cabinets 180 

Floor mops 119 

Nnmber of wheel trays 225 

Number of ironing boards 243 

Some valuable work has been done in home butter making for 
the market. In addition to the iceless refrigerators, the following 
improved home dairy equipment has been made or purchased 
under the guidance of county agents : 

Butter paddles . 635 

Butter moulds (524 

Thermometers 241 

Shotgun cans (for liandling milk) 214 

Barrel churns 180 

Number of hand butter- workers 79 

Number of pounds of butter made under demonstra- 
tion methods 70,51 .3 

In any demonstrations undertaken, whether in the making and 
use of labor-saving devices, in better utilization of farm products 
for the table, management of sanitary or hygienic problems, etc., 
it must be recognized that in addition to technical information 
brought from the outside there exist in any community many ex- 
cellent practices and much valuable information which are not in 



298 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

common use. To find such practices and arouse individuals to a 
sense of their obligation in extending them to their less fortunate 
neighbors is often a valuable part of the work of the county agent. 
As soon as this is undertaken, or whenever a few individual women 
successfully carry out definite demonstrations in their homes, ac- 
tive demand arises for community organization which shall bring 
together those having a common interest in some line of work and 
in addition give opportunity for social life and recreation. Or- 
ganizations thus developed assume a permanent place in their 
communities. 

With the initial work that has been accomplished, the fine 
support and cooperation given by many existing organizations 
and institutions, with Federal, state, and county appropriations 
rapidly being made, and a demand for the organization of counties 
far exceeding each year 's possibilities, it is safe to assume that this 
phase of extension work is permanently established. It has met 
the need of the most progressive, as well as the least developed, 
homes and communities. 

The county agent now has an avenue of approach into every 
activity of the home. With increased opportunity for training, 
which institutions are giving by adapting their courses for her 
need, and with the opportunity for permanent service in her 
county, the work of the county woman agent will continue to be 
a most potent influence for progressive and happy country 
homes. 

The activities described are typical of the home demonstra- 
tion work now being conducted in the 15 Southern States, and 
are fairly comparable with that more recently started in the 33 
Northern and Western States. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Martin, 0. B.. and Creswell, Mary E., States Relations Service, U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, Circular No. A-82, " Canning Club and 
Home Demonstration Work." 

2. Martin, 0. B., and Hill, I. W., States Relations Service, U. S. Depart- 

ment of Agriculture, Circular No. A-74, " Organization of Boys' 
Agricultural Club Work in the Southern States." 



CANNING CLUB ORGANIZATION 299 

3. Benson, O. H., States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agricul- 

ture, Circular No. NR-31, " Suggestions for Organization of Mother- 
Daughter Clubs," and Circular No. NR-21, " Farm and Handicraft 
Clubs." Document 35, S-6, Home Canning Club Aprons and Caps.* 

4. Ward, W. F., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- 

ture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 500, " Organization of Boys' Pig Clubs." 

5. Lamon, Harry L., Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of 

Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 502, " Organization of Boys and 
Girls' Poultry Clubs." 

0. Senate Document No. 537, Government Printing Office, 11)14, " Life of 
Dr. Seeman A. Knapp." 03rd Congress, 2nd session. Senate Docu- 
ment 537. 

7. I^RD, Isabel Ely, " Costume in the Cookery Laboratory," Journal of 
Home Economics, vol. 8, No. 2, Feb., 1910, American Home Eco- 
nomics Asso<'iation, Baltimore, Md. 25 cents per copy, $2 per year. 

S. Knapp, BRAOFORn, and Creswell, Mary E., " Tlie Effect of Home 
Demonstration Work on the Community and the County in the 
South," LT. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book. $1.0(1. Sepa- 
rate, No. 710, 1916, 

0. Scott, Rhea C, " Home Labor-Saving Devices," J. B. Lippincott 
Company, Philadelphia, Pa. $1.00. 

10. Creswell, M. E., and Powell, Ola, " Sewing for Girls' Club Work." 

revised, 1918, States Relations Service Circular, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

1 1. Reese, Madge, " Home Conveniences," Farmers' Bulletin No. 927, U. S. 

Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

* These circulars are a part of the series of instructions used in 
the home canning club work for boys and girls in the northern and 
western states. The complete series includes: NR-21, NR-22, NR-23, 
NR-24, NR-25, NR-20, NR-28, NR-29, NR-30, NR-31, NR-32, NR-34, NR-41, 
ISrR-47, NR-52, Farmers' Bulletin 839. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 

As Outlined by the North Carolina State Agent in Home 
Demonstration Work 

That there is an excellent market for home-canned products 
of standard grade has been amply proved by the Girls ' Canning 
Clubs of the South. Just as soon as it was established in the 
minds of the public that their products were to be depended 
upon for an extra number of whole fruit of uniform color and 
a weight running up to the maximum in a can, there was no 
trouble in getting these cans on the pantry shelves of the house- 
wife, and, later, in increasing numbers on the shelves of the 
grocer. 

Five years ago, when the canning clubs first began to can in 
tin for the market, they started with girls eager to earn money 
for themselves but absolutely untrained in the art of putting 
vegetables and fruits into cans and sterilizing them sufficiently 
well to insure their keeping qualities. Fortunately, these girls 
were young and impressionable, and they went in whole-heart- 
edly to carry out instructions in the new methods of canning 
which the state supervisors were bringing to them. 

Marketing. — In North Carolina it was back in 1912 that the 
problem of getting the products before the consumer began, 
although the girls had only 33,000 cans and these all filled with 
tomatoes. This was our first year in the organization, and both 
supervisors and girls were inexperienced in the commercial 
world. I can remember my consternation when the 33,000 cans 
were dumped upon me to sell, and every little club girl was 
asking that they be sold immediately, as she needed her money. 

Here we were with a large number of cans to be disposed of 
and with no reputation in the business world — worse than none, 
in fact, for we had to shoulder the reputation made by the usual 
carelessly packed product which the farmwife brought to the 
grocer ! Thinking it would be a good plan to sell in bulk, I sent 
samples of our tomatoes to a large grocery house in New York. 
300 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 301 

The products were examined and pronounced excellent, but in 
one of the cans there was found a very light-colored tomato, 
and, quite properly, the firm refused to take any product that 
could not be relied upon as uniform throughout. 

Standardizing.— -This criticism at the very outset of our 
marketing career probably did us more good than anything that 
could have happened. I felt that there might be a light-colored 
tomato secreted in every one of those 33,000 cans, and, calling 
into headquarters the fourteen supervising county agents, we 
had a heart-to-heart conference regarding a standard pack, and 
agreed that we must not seek an outside market until we had 
proved at home that we could put up an article that could be 
relied upon. These women went back to their territories to dis- 
pose of what the club girls had produced among their own com- 
munity housewives. If any can was found not to be what it 
should be commercially it was replaced by the club member or 
money was refunded. Strict rules and regulations regarding 
standards were enforced, and if a girl infringed the niles, ig- 
norantly or carelessly, she w^as not allowed to use the label. 

The Girls' Own Responsibility. — In a surprisingly short 
time these little business women learned the necessity of uniform 
packs, and the agents set to work inaugurating market cam- 
paigns and inspiring the girls to assume the responsibility of 
the disposal of their own products. This they did by loading 
wagons with cans and bringing them into the towns and villages, 
selling in this manner every can they had filled. In many county 
papers advertisements were run, saying that beans, peaches, 
tomatoes, berries, and so on, would be brought into town on Satur- 
day by the canning club gii'ls and orders might be left with the 
county agent, whose address Avas given. 

Sawmills became a great source of revenue, many girls re- 
porting that they had sold out to the ' ' hands ' ' before they could 
put the labels on ■'■,^; can.!). The first dealings we had with 
merchants were sa'es made to the small country grocer here and 
there who found his supply low at times and thought he might 
try a few cans of this "homemade stuff." As our output began 
to grow, in the larger towns where the housewives had eaten of 



30- 



SLCCESSFUL CANXINC! AND I'KKSERVIXC 



CO-OPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK 

m AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS IN NORTH (JAROLINA 
NORTH CAROLINA A. & M. COLLliGE 

Nortii Ccarolina State Dcpartinent of Aprii-Hlture. Divisimi of Home Demonstration Work. 

United States Departuientof Ajfriculture, Co-operating. Division of Markets. 



of. 



Date 

Name of Merchant 

Deliver to 

Street No 

NORTH CAROLINA GIRLS' CANNING CLUB 



Doz. 


Cans Tomatoes 
" String Beans 
" Blackberries 
" Peaches 
" Soup Mixture 


©.... 

@> 

(B.... 


Per 

Total 


Doz. 

$ 






II 






n 







II 




II 























1 





Approved- 



191 



ftTURE OF MERCHANT 



FURTHER ORDERS FOR CANNED GOODS MAY BE PLACED 
WITH COUNTY AGENT 



SIGNATURE OF COUNTY ACENT 



Town. 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 303 

our products and found them good, we decided to make house- 
to-house canvasses to secure orders tlirough grocers. 

Sales Demonstration. — Certain club members with initiative 
were given order books, with which they secured quite enough 
orders from the housewives to make the 4-II brand products 
well worth while to the grocer. Beautiful exhil)its in glass were 
put in his window with ' ' What you see in the glass you will find 
in the tin "; and, if he desired it, the county supervisor, with 
one or two of her girls, would go into the store and demonstrate 
the different ways in which 4-H Brand ^ products might be used. 
These little business women in their white caps and aprons 
served string-bean salad, tomato bisque, tomato jelly, or demon- 
strated what might be done with berries, peaches, corn, or kraut. 

Convincing the Retailer. — In one county the grocers were 
quite hard to convince that anything made at home could pos- 
sibly be as good as what was shipped from the factories, and 
the county supervisor was forced to call in the Chamber of Com- 
merce to assist her in convincing them. It was decided that a 
committee of grocerymen should be asked to come to the Cham- 
ber and pass judgment on the standard brands of tomatoes sold 
in the town and on the Girls' Canning Club product. Two dis- 
interested persons selected cans — four different brands — and from 
a pile of several hundred 4-II Brand cans they selected two. The 
contents of these cans were poured into six glass bowls, each bowl 
being numbered. When they were set before the grocers for 
judgment the bowls receiving the best grade held Canning Club 
products, the others grading third, fourth, fifth, and sixth. Tliis 
was enough to arouse interest in the grocers and was, with a 
house-to-house canvass for orders, sufficient to bring us a trade 
that carried every one of our county cans to the retail merchant. 

Selling Direct. — One of the best and most satisfactory selling 
arrangements is to be made with institutions, colleges, and liotels, 
and our advanced girls are working up quite a trade in No. 10 
or gallon cans. If these institutions can rely upon you for a 
steady and uniform output they are glad to be in touch with a 

* The 4-H in the brand is .1 Canning Club slogan, signifying the de 
velopment of the head, heart, hand, and liealtli. 



304 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



producer who can deliver products they know to be well flavored, 
clean, and high in the percentage of pulp to the can. 

Bettie Van Tapscott and her mother, of Alamance County, 
did some excellent work in this line. Bettie says: "We filled 
last year an order of beans and pears for Swain Hall, at the 
University of North Carolina, and when that was delivered I 
sent Mr. Tischler, the man who buys, a sample of my tomatoes. 




Fig. 11^9. — A North Carolina ranning club at work. 

He immediately ordered 100 dozen. 1 had only 1003 cans, so 
I divided the order with a neighbor club member. Mr. Tischler 
told me if what I sent him proved satisfactory he would give me 
another order for this year. I guess it did, for he gave me an 
order for just as many as I would accept. I filled it and sent it 
to him yesterday, and he wants another fifty dozen already. You 
see, it is no trouble to find a market if you go at it right. I 
correctly mark, label, and crate all products I send off." 

Club members undertake cooperative work more readily than 
will their parents. One enterprising girl informed her county 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 3O5 

agent that she had already booked orders for canned products 
to the value of $168. When asked if she could fill them all, she 
said, "Oh, no; I expect to have a good many more orders than 
this when all my letters are answered, but there are eight of us 
in our club and we will do it together." (Fig. 139.) 

Two sisters of Mecklenburg County, Margaret and May Belle 
Brown, who have been club members since the work first started 
in the fall of 1912, have sent into state headquarters reports 
of each year's work. They have kept a strict account of the 
yield and of the expense of planting, cultivating, and market- 
ing, and in five years' time they have recorded a total profit of 
$889.37. This does well indeed when the first year they cleared 
only $45, and they suffered from the terrible floods of July, 191G, 
that laid waste so many fields and gardens of the South. 

Profits Made by Five Girls in igi6. — Here are five girls 
whose 1916 marketing records are good : 

Profit 
Miss Elsie Yarborougli, Wake County $155.80 

jMiss Bettie Van Tapscott, Alamance County 137.20 

Miss Ella Maie Kelly, Richmond County 110.58 

Miss Emma Reid, Mecklenburg County 109.71 

Miss Hessie Steele, Richmond County 101.45 

One Family Record. — The family record of Mr. and Mrs. 
Watts and their two daughters, Mary and Clyde, of Wake 
County, is interesting. They canned in the summer of 1916 : 

2000 cans tomatoes $200.00 

3000 cans sweet potatoes 300.00 

500 cans string beans 75.00 

200 cans corn 30.00 

300 cans butterbeans 60.00 

300 glasses apple jelly 45.00 

8 quarts fig pickle 3.20 

12 quarts fig preserves 9.G0 

8 quarts scuppernong preserves .• G.OO 

8 quarts tomato pickle 4.00 

200 glasses blackberry jam 40.00 

6536 total containers. Estimated value, $772.80 

Estimated cost, 193.20 



20 Profit, $579.60 



30G 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



A Summary Showing Increase of Work Done by Years 
Since 191 2. — This is a summary of Canning Club work in North 
Carolina for a period of five years, 1912-1916: 



Year 


Number 
counties 
organized 


Number 

girls 
reporting 


Number 

cans and 

jars 


Value of 
products 


Total 
cost 


Total 
profits 


1912 

1913 


14 
14 
32 
37 

44 


229 
235 

814 
2,386 
3,453 


33,019 

70,000 

259,019 

633,447 

680,551 


$3,301 

7,000 

35,361 

104,241 

117,816 


$825 

1,750 

9,425 

28,985 

29,432 


$2,476 

5,250 

25 935 


1914 


1915 

1916 


75,256 
88,383 


Totals. . 






1,676,036 


$267,719 


$70,417 


$197,300 









Diagram Showing Growth of Profits for Five Years 



1912- 
1913- 
1914- 
1915- 
1916- 



STANDARDS 

That a can may be accepted by the trade and that a home 
canner may stand on an equal footing with the commercial 
canner, standards of excellence must be the same. First, it 
would be well to select a standard variety of fruit or vegetable 
to can. White peaches in one can and yellow in another, under 
the same brand, will not be tolerated by the trade unless marked 
white peach or yellow peach. This will apply to the shrivel pea 
and the marrowfat- — each good of its kind, but each needing a 
definite distinguishing name, even if they both appear under the 
same brand. 

The brand may be considered the family name which the 
packer adopts for his products, and each variety he puts out will 
have a given name which will distinguish it from the rest of the 
family. If a canner decides to put string beans upon the market 
he should select a variety which has practically no strings and 
which is round and meaty and green in color. These qualities 
are demanded by the trade and can ^e had in the "Green Pod 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CAXXING 3O7 

Striiigless Bean." This bean, even when grown to medium size, 
is still juicy, tender, and stringless, and has proved a much better 
canner than the old Valentine. 

Grading. — Beans are graded as to size, the first grading being 
given to the very small bean. This grade is called in commercial 
pai-lanee "Rat-tail." The next grade is medium, and the third 
the broken bean. Each of these is excellent in its way, as even the 
broken bean is gathered while it is tender and before well-formed 
beans are to be found in the pod. 

Tomatoes should be red-ripe, and to grade as extra standard 
the can should be packed full of either whole tomatoes or very 
large pieces. Sometimes the whole fruit is too large to put in the 
can opening and must be cut. One green or light-colored tomato 
will ruin your grade. 

Peaches should be graded according to the number of halves 
that can be packed in a can, and the contents of a can should be 
absolutely uniform in size and color. Some of the California 
peaches are so large that only eight halves can be packed in a No. 
3 can. These, of course, would have an extra fine grading. We 
cannot hope in the East to equal the size of the California fruit, 
but our flavor seems to catch the trade, and many of the Eastern 
peaches grade extremely well on that account. 

Berries will be graded as to size, only ripe fruit being used. 

Soup mixture, chow-chow, and ketchup must each be of a uni- 
form consistency, as must jams and preserves. 

The cans, jars, and bottles should be selected carefully and 
the number of ounces that they contain carefully noted on the 
label. Directions as to weights of cans and quantity of contents 
will be found elsewhere in this book. 

The Label. — The label for a can should be carefully chosen 
and must not be changed except under unusual circumstances. 
This label becomes the sign-patent of what is in the can, and any 
reputation which the contents of the can may make is recorded 
under its particular label in the purchaser's mind. To change 
often would be disastrous, as the public has begun to look for what 
it desires under a particular cover, and is a little suspicious that 
it is not getting quite as good if a change is made (Fig. 140). 



308 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




Fig. 140. — Properly labelled jars. 




Fig. 141. — Standard packs in tin. 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 309 

I was much amused at an old grocer who had been buying 
from the Canning- Clubs when all of the labels bore pictures of the 
fruit or vegetable in the can. The new labels were very neat and 
attractive, but were without pictures, simply the name of the 
vegetable being printed on them. "I can't buy these," he said. 
"I would have to take out my spectacles and read the name on 
those cans every time I wanted peaches or tomatoes for a cus- 
tomer for the whole lot of them." 

Consult your grocers and see which style they prefer. Make 
your selection and stick to it. Ever}^ label should bear the name 
and address of the canner, and should have printed thereon the 
weight of contents of can (Fig. 141). 

When striving for an extra trade a well-advertised cleanliness 
of methods does much to bring a high-class patronage. To pub- 
lish that all canning is done under a wire-screened shed or in a 
fly-proof room, that the workers wear immaculate uniforms and 
close-fitting caps, and that conditions around the canner are sani- 
tary in every respect is a great incentive to the hospital or hotel 
buyer. 

MARKETING POLICY 

During the fall and winter of 1916, for example, prices of 
canned products ran riot, and all preconceived ideas of what was 
a good marketing policy were scattered to the winds. A county 
agent who had heretofore found it wise and expedient to visit the 
town merchant in the spring and secure his order at a certain 
price for future delivery discovered that she had brought trouble 
upon herself unless she had designated some special girls to fill 
those orders at the time the contract wa§ made. 

Prices eo22imenced to climb even in August, and by October 
tomatoes were selling at $1.10-$1.25 a dozen to the retailer^ 
When the agent thought it time to fill the contracts taken at $1 
she found many of her girls had sold at $1.25 and many 
more were holding for the advanced price that was certain to 
come. She had not put the matter before the girls in the spring to 
find if they would take the contract, believing that any of them 
would be glad of the chance to sell tomatoes in quantity at one 
dollar, as had been the case in previous years. It was therefore 



310 SUCCESSFUL CAKNING AND PRESERVING 

a distinct shock to tiiid so many already sold out or ari'anging for 
higher prices. It was at the last the club spirit that saved her, 
for the girls clubbed together and agreed each one to furnish a 
part of the orders taken, that the loss might not fall heavily on 
any one of them and that the business honor of the clubs might 
be saved. 

Business plans which have been evolved from that experience 
seem to be sound. The county supervisor will alv/ays more or less 
act as a go-between from club girl to merchant, because the mer- 
chant finds it very convenient to telephone her an order or to see 
her about the coming output when she is in town ; but after the 
agent finds what the grocer needs she is wisely selecting certain 
girls to go to him, make their own bargains, and sign any con- 
tracts which may be eventually agreed upon. This puts the re- 
sponsibility on the proper person — the producei* — and leaves the 
county agent free to advise, to keep her eyes open for possible 
chances, to see that standards are maintained, and to look to the 
carrying out of the state's marketing policy; namely, not selling 
to the merchant and also to the consumer in any town. By this 
policy we avoid selling to the grocer and also to his customers, 
and so keep the good-will of both (Fig. 142). 

It was a little difficult to instill this into the girl at first. She 
could not see why it was not proper to sell all the products pos- 
sible to the housewives at certain advanced prices, and what she 
could not sell in this way later to sell to the merchant at a less 
price. 

Good business principles, however, are part of her training, 
and she sees the wisdom of the position when she and her fellow- 
club members are producing in such quantities that it is upon the 
grocer that they must rely to take the whole output. He pays 
promptly a satisfactory price — even if less than the consinner — 
and the difference is almost made up when the delivery of all 
products can be made at one time instead of in small lots. 

Prices. — Prices are governed by supply and demand. In 
1915 from 85 cents to $1 per dozen was a good price to receive 
for No. 3 tomatoes. In 1916-1917 tomatoes in No. 3 cans sold 
as high as $1.80 to $2 per dozen to the retailer. Nineteen hundred 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANlS'IiN(jl 311 

and fifteen was a guotl garden year, and a large juunber of cans 
vrere put upon the niai'ket. Nineteen liundred and sixteen was 
one of the worst tnieking years the country had ever known. Not 
only did the long drought of April and ]\lay damage the early 
plants until we could expect only half a crop, but in the South 
the July floods almost wiped out what remained. The supply 
of canned products was therefore very short all over the coun- 
try, and the reserve supply of the jobbers and grocers had been' 
called upon to such an extent that even a bumper crop in 1917 
would scarcely meet the demand of, ordinary circumstances. As 
it was, war conditions made an extra supply necessary and put 
upon the home the responsibility of filling every available glass 
jar for home use and every tin can for market. 

While empty tin cans were high, the price of full cans was 
correspondingl}^ high, and there appeared to be no chance of a 
canner losing out in the market if his pack were of standard 
grade. 

In North Carolina the club girls have found it at times not 
unprofitable to sell to the jobber. Indeed, there are circumstances 
under which this is advisable. If a supervisor finds herself with 
a large output in a county, the market not very brisk, and the 
young canners quite impatient to sell, as is sometimes the case 
in a new county, a jobber who will agree to take the whole output 
or as much of it as the girls will agree to let go may prove himself 
a friend in need. The price is not much below the retail man's, 
aiid the short length of time it takes for the girls to reimburse 
themselves gives them courage and determination to keep on at 
the work another year. In some cases drop orders for these job- 
bers may be accepted ; that is, a jobber will buy several thousand 
cans from a county, asking that one thousand be sent to John 
Doe, of Wilmington, and so many more to a firm in Charlotte, 
and so on. This saves the jobber the extra expense of receiving 
the whole shipment himself and reshipping to his customers. 

Principal Money Crops. — The club girls' principal money 
crops are tomatoes, string beans, and soup mixture, though the 
demand for sweet potatoes, corn, kraut, peas, berries, peaches, 
preserves, jams, and pickles is constantly growing. 



312 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Five years ago the girl fouiid it difficult to get her products 
upon the market without much hard work. To-day, because of 
her fidelity to standards and her willingness to make good any 
losses to the merchant, he is seeking her out and in many counties 
is taking every 4-H Brand can that is put upon the market. In 
1916 the canning clubs of the South could have sold many times 
their output, and they are now looking forward to a more than 
•doubled output, feeling that they have an assured market for all 
they can produce, and a great duty to perform in producing 
everything that their energ;y' and determination can wrest from 
the ground. 

Shipping. — The best marketing policy is to build up a trade in 
your own community. Certainly, unless your canning output 
is large enough to number in carload lots, it would not be 
profitable to ship to any great distance. Freight rates in small 
lots are high and rather unsatisfactory as to length of time in 
delivery. In North Carolina we frequently ship from one county 
to another when a territory has produced a large number of cans 
and feels that its market might not be sufficiently well estab- 
lished to dispose of them readily. But we are careful to ship to 
the nearest county having a market for more than it produced, 
and we make certain that the shipment goes over one line only. 

For the most part, cans should be shipped in cases containing 
two dozen. Look at the regulation tomato box in any grocery 
store and observe the size. These boxes should be marked on 
both ends by a label. Just the same label which you paste on 
your can will answer and should be placed in the middle of the 
end spaces. This will enable the grocer to determine easily the 
contents of the case. 

Last year I found some grocers and many institutions willing 
to have their jiroducts in tin shipped to them in barrels. The 
freight rate is cheaper on barrels, and if excelsior is used in the 
packing to prevent scratching of labels, six dozen No. 3 cans can 
be sent very well in this receptacle. 

Shipment of products in glass can be made in barrels well 
packed with excelsior and arrive with practically no breakage. 
Pasteboard cartons are good for small packages of glass. Glass is 



THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 



313 



best seut by express, tliouyii sliurt-distanee freight is ({uite safe for 
glass in barrels. The parcels post may be used to advantage for 
small packages, but they must be put in either a heavy pasteboard 
carton or a light wooden one and be well packed. 

The Invoice. — AVhen an order is shipped, an invoice or list 
of what is included in the shipment should be sent to the pui'- 
chaser and a copy filed for the shipper's information. Never 




Fig. 142. — Canning Club Exhibit, North Carolina State Fair, 1915. 

neglect this, as much confusion results otherwise. A copy of the 
bill of lading should also be sent, but an express receipt should 
be kept by the shipper. 

The Payment. — Some merchants ask that shipment be made 
sight draft with bill of lading attached. This means that the pur- 
chaser pays before taking the shipment from the station. Any 
banker Avill explain this shipment. Other merchants prefer the 
bill sent and a certain length of time in which to pay it. Any 



314 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING ANJ) J'KKSKKA'ING 





vege- 
tables 












1 

1 




No. lbs. 

home 

use 








■ 






No. !b.s. 
sold f re.sh 












O 


o <u 








1 




O 
























1 


1 


&. 














o< 










1 
1 




03 

to 

1 
















a 














n 


o 
o 

•z 
















n 
6 














- 


IN 

d 

•z 














6 
















Kinds 














( 


3 












"3 
o 





THE BUSINESS SIDE OF CANNING 3^5 

grocer whose rating is good slioiild be able to arrange satisfactory 
means of payment with the shipper. In five years of doing 
business with the merchant the North Carolina Canning Clubs 
have never to my knowledge lost a penny through nonpayment of 
bills. 

In trading with the housewife cash payments are preferable, 
as too much time is consumed in a second visit to collect for small 
orders. 

Records and Accounts. — Every canner should keep an ac- 
count of just what she spends in her yearly venture. A com- 
plicated system of bookkeeping is not necessary ; but to deter- 
mine just what is cleared during the season and to be able to 
know whether the business pays, a strict record of what is paid 
out in money and time must be kept. The following things should 
be listed : cost of ploughing, fertilizer, seed, plants, time con- 
sumed in planting, cultivating, harvesting and canning, and the 
cost of sugar, cans, jars, labels, crates, etc. The cost of mar- 
keting must also be included. 

A record should also be kept of what is sold, the prices re- 
ceived, and when delivered. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe briefly your idea of business integrity. 

2. What) plan of marketing do you believe would be tlie most feasil)le in 

your commvniity? Why? 

3. A fundamental demand of a conunereial product is uniformity: give a 

Ijrief explanation of eacii way in which packs should be uniform. 

4. In what ways may the label influence ease of marketing? 

5. Explain how prices are governed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. McKiMMON, Jane S., "Marketing the Canning Club Products." article 

in Country Centleman, issue June 3, 1910. Published by the Curtis 
Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

2. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service. 

"Canning Club Record Book," B-oll, i. Published by the Office of 
Extension Work in the South. States Relations Service, Department 
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



CHAPTER XX 

TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 

The material contained in this volume may be used as a text- 
book in the hands of students in a course of canning and pre- 
serving given for high school, normal school, and college students. 
Here and there such courses are being given, and in many other 
institutions the subjects of canning and preserving are given at- 
tention. This book will also prove useful as a reference volume iji 
connection with extension and other special courses, and in sum- 
mer school courses for study as to utilizing fruits and vegetables 
cultivated on the city vacant lots, high school training farms, and 
school gardens. 

Many schools and colleges are adding this line of practical 
work, in raising and canning fruits and vegetables, to their Home 
Economics courses. It had been found that the best results can 
be obtained where the productive side of the question is considered 
first, and where raising the products precedes their utilization in 
canning. 

The subject of preservation of foods has been only barely 
touched upon in most of the Home Economics courses. Little 
time or stud}^ in schools has been given this very important phase 
of food conservation vmtil very recently. Now the colleges of 
agriculture and colleges for women in nearly all of the states have 
included in their regular courses work in canning, or they give 
during the year a short course, v/hich includes such instruction. 
Some of these courses are planned for Farmers' Week, Farmers' 
Institutes, and other special short courses. Sometimes courses 
are given in the state institutions for women and girls who have 
won the highest and best records in their state in home demonstra- 
tion work and canning clubs. While the principles presented 
should cover representative phases of the subject, the practical 
316 



TEACHING CANNING AND KELATED ACTIVITIES 317 

work done will naturally be determined by seasons. Brief or a 
more exhaustive study should be given, according to the age and 
maturity of the students. It is understood that more of the bac- 
teriology of canning will be given to advanced students. In 
planning courses the teacher should plan her work with refer- 
ence to 

1. Aim. 

2. Subject-matter. 

3. Methods. 

4. Equipment. 

5. Library. 

A SUMMER SHORT COURSE 

For a two-week summer short course the plan outlined below 
is suggested for the first year's work in canning. Necessary in- 
formation to carry on such a course may be gotten from the text. 

Lesson I. Lecture — Principles of canning. 

Lesson II. Canning tomatoes or berries in glass. 

Lesson III. Arranging necessary equipment for canning in tin. Canning 
tomatoes in tin. 

Lesson IV. Utilizing tomato by-products: (a) Tomato puree; (6) to- 
mato paste; (c) green tomato pickle; (d) tomato ketchup. 

Lesson V. Plain fruit canning in tin — either peaches, figs, or pears — 
giving recipe for putting up a by-product for each fruit 
used. 

Lesson VI. Fancy packing of fruits in glass for exhibit purposes. 

Lesson VII. Canning beans and peas in tin. 

Lesson VIII. Fancy jjacking of beans and carrots in glass for exhibit pur- 
poses. 

Lesson IX. Canning corn in tin; canning baby beets in glass. 

Lesson X. Canning sweet Spanish pimientos whole, in glass and in tin. 

Lesson XI. Canning soup mixture in glass; packing of vegetable mace- 
doine in glass. 

Lesson XII. Arranging an attractive exhibit of products canned. Instruc- 
tions on judging and scoring. Examination. 

The second year 's course should include preserving, jelly mak- 
ing, and crystallizing of fruits, as given in the following outline. 
A longer course in a single season for more mature students might 
include both. 



318 SUCCESSFUL c.wxixi; .\.\;) im;i>:sekving 

Lesson L Lecture — (Jenenil j)iiiieij)lc.s of jueserving. 

Lesson IL Preserved watermelon rind or citron melon, also bottling 
fresh fruit juices. 

Lesson III. Finishing watermelon rind preserve. Starting berry shrub. 

Lesson IV. Preserved jjeaches, figs, or pears, with recipes for by-products, 
peach marmalade, fig marmalade, gingered pear, and jams. 

Legson V. Making the by-products of the fruit chosen for preserving. 

Lesson VI. Making marmalades and conserves. Grape-fruit, kumquat, 
or orange marmalade; fig, plum, or rhubarb conserve. 

Lesson VII. Fruit pastes or butters: apple, apricot, fig, or peach. Drying 
fruits and vegetables. 

Lesson VIII. Jelly making. Begin crystallizing fruits. 

Lesson IX. Pickling. Brining vegetables. 

Lesson X. Curing of meats. (lecture.) Canning meat, fish and ntlier 
sea food (under steam pressure). 

Lesson XI. jNIaking sweet pickles. 

Lesson XII. Making relish, chutney, mangoes. 

Lesson XIII. Finish crystallizing fruits and packing fruit pastes. 

Lesson XIV. Arrange an attractive exhibit of products preserved. In- 
structions on judging and scoring. 

Lesson XV. Summary of work done. 

It is impossible to suggest a course of study which miglit be 
adopted without changes, since the value of such a course depends 
greatly upon the choice of suitable products, and those which the 
people being taught most desire to know about. The locality and 
the season of the year will cause the selection of material to vary 
considerably in different sections. However, considerable uni- 
formity can exist in the instructions planned for an organization 
in a section or an entire state, depending upon a range of latitude 
and variation in climate. 

COUNTY SHORT COURSES 

A state-wide plan for all county short courses for canning club 
girls has helped work out a fine scheme of standardizing the 
special club products made during tlie four j-ears' program of 
work throughout the state. The following is part of the plans 
which have been outlined for use in short courses: 

First-year Canning Club Members. — First hour each day 
devoted to lecture on one of the general topics : Sanitation, Per- 
sonal Hygiene, Principles Underlying the Work. 



TEACHING CANNING AND KELATED ACTIVITIES 319 

Two- to three-liour period daily for practical work in canning 
tomato products: salad tomatoes in thick sauce packed in glass, 
plain canned tomatoes in tin, tomato puree, tomato paste in tin 
and glass, green tomato pickle in glass, tomato ketchup in bottles, 
and soup mixture in glass. 

A part of the time during these short courses is devoted to 
other phases of the club work which are emphasized at different 
seasons of the year, such as gardening, poultry work, winter gar- 
dening, sewing, bread making, and cooking and serving of club 
products. 

Second-year Canning Club Members. — The second-year 
members spend the first hour in assembly hearing the general 
lecture. The practice period is devoted to work in canning and 
preserving the special products which they are growing on their 
one-tenth acre plots; soup mixture in tin, fancy packing of 
beans, peaches, or figs in glass, vegetable macedoine (band pack- 
ing) in glass, baby beets, okra, Dixie relish. 

Third-year Canning Club Members. — Dixie relish, canned 
pimientos, chutney, jelly, and preserves. 

Fourth-year Members. — (Canning Cluh, Home Demonstra- 
tion Cluh, and Ladies from Town.) 

Jellies, preserves, marmalades, jams, and conserves. Pickling 
(brining of vegetables). 

The short course outlined above is based upon the general 
plan of work which has been adopted in all the Southern States. 
It includes a program of work for four consecutive years. A 
description of this four-year program is given on page 302. In 
other sections. North and West, there are similar organizations of 
girls and women with programs which give gardening and can- 
ning work a large place. Such work provides for girls and young 
women of the farms a useful vocation, stimulating them to broader 
activities and more useful lives. From the standpoint of the indi- 



;520 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



vidual, such work gives fine opportunity for development of self- 
reliance, initiative, and skill in special lines. This skill has a 
direct economic value, because the girls possessing it are enabled 
to earn money. By the cooperative community effort called forth 
by these lines of work, rural life is made more attractive for men, 
women, and young people alike. 

An Outlined Program of Work for Girls' Demonstration Clubs in 

Oklahoma 

I . Canning Clubs 

First year f One-tenth acre tomatoes or home 

\ garden. 



One-tenth acre 
gardens : 



Second year . 



Third year. 



Fourth year. 



B. Winter gardens 



One-tenth acre tomatoes and one other 
vegetable. 

One- tenth acre tomatoes, two other 
vegetables or one-twentieth acre 
vegetables, one-twentieth acre per- 
ennials. 

f One-twentieth acre new perennials, 
I one-twentieth acre perennials from 
[ third year or home garden. 



1. Fall gardens. 

2. Catch crops. 

3. Cover crops. 



, f Fresh. 



(a) Standardization of all garden and orchard products ^ pj. a ' pf] 
(6) Economic preservation of all waste products on farm. 

(c) Exhibits at county and state contests held in the fall. 

(d) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321. 



//. Poultry Clubs 

( 1 . General utility purposes. 

(a) Selection of breeds for s 2. Egg production. 

[3. Market. 

(b) Marketing of poultry and poultry products. 

1 Breeding. 
Housing. 
Treatment of diseases. 
Grading. 

(d) Use of reports. 

(c) Exhibit / Eggs. 

\ Pure-bred birds from setting of eggs. 

(/) See outlined plan of Home Demonstration Work, page 321. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RET^TED ACTIVITIES 301 

An Outline Plan of Home Demonstration Work for Women in 
Oklahoma 

f Fireless cooker and oil stoves. 

, T , , ,. ... Flv-traps and sanitary appliances. 

1. Labor- and time-saving devices. ^^.-^^.^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^,,^^;,j [^^^^ ^^,^1^^ 

[ with rollers, running water, etc. 
2. I^cononiic production of wholesome food from all garden and poultry club 
products. 

(1. Sterile utensils. 
2. Care and use of milk. 
3. Butter making and ciieese making. 
4. ^Marketing of dairy products. 

4. Sewing: 

[ Cap. 
(a) ]\Iaking of club uniform < Apron. 

[ Towel and holder. 
(6) Selection of material for clothing, 
(c) Making of simple cotton dress. 

Begin with batters and end with yeast 
bread. 

5. Bread making ■ Economic use of stale bread. 

Care of bread and use of wheat Hour 
substitutes. 

course of study in farmers' bulletins from u. s. department of agri- 
culture for women county agents in OKLAHOMA 

For February, March, and April 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 913, Killing Hogs and Curing Pork. 

Poultry ( State lesson sheets ) . 

Gardening ( State lesson sheets ) . 
934 Vegetable Gardening in South. 
936 City and Suburban Garden. 
642 Tomato Growing in the South. 
851 House Flies and 734, Fly Traps and Their Operation. 

For May, June, and July 
634 (Year Book) Clean Water and How to Get it on the Farm. 
607 Farm Kitchen as a Workshop and 927, Home Conveniences. 
876 Farm Butter Making and 850, Making Cottage Cheese on the Farm. 
375 Care of Food in the Home. 
444 Remedies and Preventives against Mosquitoes. 

For Aur/iist, Heptemhcr, and October 
889 Backyard Poultry and 806, American Varieties of Chickens. 
644 Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. 
478 How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. 
270 Modern Conveniences for Farm Home. 
646 Selection of Household Equipment. 
132 Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in the Southern 

States. Study one Text-book on Foods. 

21 



322 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



GARDENING AND CANNING IN CITIES 

Such organizations as Boards of Education and Civic Asso- 
ciations have conducted gardening and canning in a number oi' 
cities. In the canning instructions collected with the vacant lot 
gardens, training farm plots, and school gardens in cities the 
fruit and vegetables should be canned as they mature. Sometimes 
a nearby school building which is usually closed during the sum- 
mer months has available a well-equipped domestic science labora- 
tory whieli could be used to great advantage in this summer work. 
If such a i^laee is not available, a shady spot near the garden 



?f:;, :^^^' 



«. **£'>■-* >%^ 




Fig. 143. — A cultivated city vacant lot in Philadelphia. 



may be selected and here outdoor equipment set up for the can- 
ning work. Only a limited number of utensils are necessary. 

Vacant Lot Gardening. — Tlie vacant lot gardening in Phila- 
delphia is typical of what some of the cities are doing and of what 
all sliould do (Fig. 145). ]\Iany property owners in this city lend 
their land with the undei-standing that in case they wash to sell, 
build, or use the land the gardeners will release it on a six weeks' 
notice. Tlie work is conducted under the auspices of the Philadel- 
phia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association. Several hundred fam- 
ilies are made happier and brought to hotter health every year 
because of this opportunity to get close to IMother Nature. Such 



TEACHING CANNING AND UEI.ATED ACTIVITIES 323 




324 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



a privilege enables many people to provide wholesome food and 
recreation for their families durinsr the summer months. Often 







Fig. 145. — A cooperative neighborhood garden in Philadelphia, Pa. 




Fig. 146. — A St. Louis community canning kitchen. iCourtc.-y of U. S. Department 

of Agriculture.) 

a goodly supply of potatoes and other vegetables is grown and 
stored for winter use. At the same time the city is beautified by 
growing gardens on the vacant lots (Fig. 143). 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



325 



What is not used in the homes or sold fresh niiiiht easily be 
canned, or dried, stored, and sold later or used during the winter 
months. 

School gardens (Fig. 144) should be large enough to produce 
a supply of vegetables for the home table, with a small surplus 
to sell or to can. In some country schools, gardens have been culti- 




FiG. 147. — A tomuto plot ia Geauga County, Ohio. 

vated by the children and the vegetables canned for use during 
the winter in hot school lunches. 

The training farm work in Cleveland, 1910 to 1918, may be 
cited to show what city school gardens will accomplish. There 
the children studied the canning and preserving of all vegetal^les 
grown in their gardens, these canning lessons being given in the 
Domestic Science Department of the Schools. 

One of the features of the work has been the exhibit of the 
garden products and canned goods (Figs. 148 and 149). All of 
the products exhibited were grown and put up by the children in 
the Willard School Farm (Fig. 150). 



32G 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESEUVING 




TEACiriNG CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 39; 




328 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 329 




Fig, 151. — Senior class at HarrisonburL' Nnnnai >(i 
and spraj'ing their plants 



\ irfiini.'i, cui; i 




1 11... 1."j2.-— .Slaking and tying plants. 



330 .SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

After the planting season, before the vegetables mature, there 
is opportunity to bring together the necessary equipment in a 
suitable place. The building of homemade canners and fly-traps 
may be taught as a part of the preparation for outdoor canning. 

The fundamental principles of canning should first be taught 
through the use of the material most easily canned. Some of the 




Fig. 153. — Prize winning short course girls pruning; tomato plants. 

early berries and fruits are easier to can than the vegetables, 
and lend opportunity for practice before the products which are 
more difficult to can come into bearing. 

CANNING IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 

Normal Schools have already recognized the value of giving 
their students practical work of this nature so that later, as teach- 
ers, they may be prepared to direct these activities among chil- 
dren successfully. In many institutions students have organized 
themselves into canning clubs which they have conducted for the 
purpose of learning how to carry on these organizations among 
children. 

The accompanying series of illustrations gives an idea of what 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



331 



was done at one of the state normal schools in Virginia (Figs. 
151, 152, 153, 154, and 155). A one-half acre scholarship plot 
was given to the senior class. They were to plant, spray, culti- 




Fio. li")'). — Stvulcnts' display cf canning products from the Scholarship Plot. 



vate, stake, and prniie the tomato plants. The canning clnl) girls 
who won the state short course scholarsliips from various counties 



333 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




FiG.l'iG. — Tomato plot cultivated by senior class at Hattiesburg Normal School, Mississippi, 
r 




l^iG. 1.)/. — i'liin of building used for canning at State Industrial College, Denton, 'l'exa3. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



333 



came to this school in the summer. The plot furnished oppor- 
tunity for practical instruction in the garden. When the stu- 
dents returned to school in the fall the garden was in bearing. 
The district agent in home demonstration work, who had her 
headquarter in this school, gave many demonstrations to the 
senior students in the utilization of this vegetable in various 




Fig. 15S. — One of the training schools for voluntary leaders in the comprehensive can- 
ning and drying campaign carried on in Nebraska in 1917. 2150 of these leaders were 
trained by the State College and cooperating institutions. 

ways. Plain canned tomatoes, whole salad tomatoes in thick 
sauce, tomato puree, tomato paste, tomato ketchup, and green to- 
mato pickles were the principal products made. The students be- 
came skilled in canning and gave demonstrations for the benefit 
of other members of the school. Some of these products were 
used in the school dining hall and ^ome were sold. The proceeds 
are to be turned each year into a permanent scholarship fund for 
canning club girls of the state. 

The training given in the state normal school has enabled 
teachers to give fine assistance to the county agent in organizing 
canning clubs (Fig. 156). Colleges are also giving- courses in 
canning; a n"otable example is the State Industrial College at 
Denton, Texas, which has provided a canning laboratory build- 
ing (Fig. 157). 

In the early summer two-day training schools in canning were 
held for the instructors of the Nel^raska State College and of the 



334 



SUCCP]S.SFUL CANNING AND rRESKilVlNG 



other institutions in the state which were cuupt'ratiny in tlie i'ood 
conservation eaiiipaign (Fig. 158). Similar training schools were 
then lield at strategic points in the state l)y these teacliers. Each 
of these schools was attended by twenty-live delegates from 
women's organizations in the neight)orhood. Each delegate came 
pledged to become a teacher in her own community, and to keej) 
a record of the number of people she taught and the amount of 
food canned or dried. The volunteer leader with the best record 
taught 998 people before the season closed. 

SU(J(iICSTEO LIST OF SUPPLIES FOR A SMALL LAKOUATOUY 

Brushes, etc.: 



1 Fan-shaped sink brnsh 
y^ Dozen brushes for test-tubes 

Choppers, l^liccrs, etc. : 

1 No. 3 food cluipper 

1 Sterling slicer 

Cutlery, etc.: 

2 Silver-plated dessert knives 

1 Eubber-tipped sink shovel 
1/2 Dozen spoons, tea, heavy 

plated 

2 Spatulas, steel, nickel- 

plated, G-ineli blade 

Crockery, etc. : 

1 Dozen plates, dinner, D-iuch, 
plain 



Enamel Boilers, Pans, Cvp't, Trays, etc.: 
1 Tray, white enamel, oval 
3 Bowls, white enamel, four- 
quart 
3 Pans, enamelled, sauce, No. 

24 
3 Pans, enamelled, stew. 

Nesco six-quart 
6 Pans, enamelled. milk, 

round, six-quart 
1 Pan, dish, tin. larsre size 
1/0 Dozen cups, enamelled 



1/2 Dozen brushes for small cyl- 
inders 
14 Dozen laushes, bristle 

1 Hand bottle capping ma- 

cliine 
1 Hand fruit press 

1 Sure-cut can oi)ener 
l^ Dozen spoons, table, heavy 

plated (set of 0) 
1/0 Dozen forks, table, heavy 

plated (set of 0) 
Y2 Dozen knives, paring, three- 
inch blade 

1 Dozen dishes, side, plain 
white 
Yj Dozen crocks, glazed stone, 
one-gallon, with covers 

1 Gnp, tin, one-quart 
1 Tureen, oval, enamelled, 
thirteen-quart (used for 
hot-water bath proces- 
sor) 
Va Dozen pans, enamelled, 

milk, oval 
14 Dozen bowls, enamelled, 

one-quart 
1/0 Dozen bowls, enamelled, 
tAVO-quart 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



335 



Funnels, Jar Fillers, etc.: 

1 I'atent funnel, pint size, 
copper, nickel lined 

Glass Containers and Measures: 

1 Gross No. 12 champagne 

sliaped catsup bottles, 
roll top and criinp cap 
3 Glass measuring cups, Vs 
]unt, graduated 
100 Processing clamps 

% Dozen graduates, glass, 
cone shape, eight-ounce 
l^ Dozen cups, feeding, glass 

2 Dozen glasses, jelly 

1 Dozen jars, preserve, 
jMason's standard one- 
pint 

1 Dozen jars, Mason's Atlas 
one-quart, wide mouth 

Miscellaneous : 

iy-< Yards oilcloth, wliite 

6 Yards denim, upholsterer's, 

dark blue 
10 Yards cheesecloth, bleaclied, 
3(5 inches wide 

Scientific Apjtaratvs, 8valts, and tSupplies: 

1 Scales, double beam, porce- 

lain plate, 10-inch square, 
witli brass scoop 

2 Confectioner's thermom- 

eters, range 80 degrees 
to 350 degrees F. 

3 Chemical thermometers, 

scale range 1 10 degrees C. 

3 Chemical thermometers, 

scale range 230 degrees F. 

14 Dozen salt per cent, scale, 

per cent, to 100 per cent. 

1 Sugar hydrometer. Balling 
scale degree to 70 de- 
grees, % degree gradua- 
tion 



1 Ahnninum jar filler 



Dozen jars. Mason's Atlas 
one-pint, wide mouth 

Dozen No. 5004 10-ounce 
vase-shape jar, with her- 
metic cap 

Dozen No. 5042 r2-ounce 
glass top, screw rim 

Dozen No. 209 lO-ovmce 
tumbler-shape jar, with 
liermetic cap 

Dozen No. 184 4-ounce jar, 
with hermetic cap 

Gross thick red or gray 
rubber jar rings 



Yards flannel, white 
Dozen yards towelling, 17- 
inch linen 
Dozen rolls paper hand 
towelling 



Sugar hydrometers, Rrix 
scale, range degree to 
30 degrees, graduated I/2 
degree 

Sugar hydrometers, Brix 
scale, range 30 degrees to 
60 degrees, graduated 14 
degree 

250 e.c. cylinders, for float- 
ing spindles 

Small steam pressure 
processor 

Small " water-seal " eanner 

Wash boiler to be used for 
a " hot-water "' eanner 



336 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Sieves, Strainers, Ladles, etc, : 
1 Sanitary sink basket 
I No. 80 puree sieve 

1 Oblong wire draining tray 

for processing boiler 

2 Aluminum ladles, oval bowl 

for pouring, hook on 
middle of handle 
Wooden Ware, etc.: 

2 Flat wooden spoons 

1 Small potato masher for 

crushing fruits 
1 Jar, slop, papier-mache 
1/3 Dozen cane packing paddles 

The above list is intended for experimental work; for in- 
dividual class work the list would need to be supplemented. Can- 
ning instruction can be given in an ordinary cooking laboratory. 



2 Perforated aluminum skim- 
mers 

1 Large aluminum strainer 

1 Wire frying basket with bail 
for blanching vegetables 

1 Puree sieve 

1 Colander 

% Dozen cane syrup paddles 

2 Wooden paddles for testing 

jelly 
2 Jelly racks 




Fig. 159. — A North Carolina exhibit of first-year products. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



337 



One does not need a special room, althongh, as the work de- 
velops, a room set aside as "A Canning- Laboratory" will tend 
to dignify the work and simplify the task of the instructor. A 
lecture room with a raised platform where demonstrations and 
lantern slide lectures conld he given for the benefit of all students 
would be most useful. A list of catalogues and samples from 
commercial firms should be secured and students should famil- 
iarize themselves with the sources of supplies (see Appendix, 
p. 373). 

Exhibits. — Numerous benefits may be derived from exhibiting 
the finished products of canning and preserving work in schools 




Fig. 160. — A parish exhibit in Louisiana. 



22 



338 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



and clubs. A "harvest home" in the school, a community fair, a 
county or state fair attracts attention to what has been accom- 
plished and interests a greater number of people. One of the 
most important results of the exhibit is its use as a means of 
establishing standards of quality. It impresses forcibly the great 
necessity for uniform products. Uniform containers for the 
products improve the appearance of the whole exhibit (Figs. 159 
and 160). 

Figure 161 shows a miniature exhibit suggested as a plan for 



iiiti 




Fig. 161. — A miniature exhibit suggested as a plan for a fair. 



a state fair booth. Each small pyramid, which is covered with 
dark green, is to represent the separate county or parish exhibit. 
The jars for each stand are usually selected from the best ones 
shown at the community or county fairs, and should represent 
the best work done in that county. The larger frame in the 
center is for special products which have been entered for indi- 
vidual awards. 

This plan of arrangement by counties simplifies judging and 
makes possible a comparison of work done by the different coun- 
ties at a glance. Standardized special products from the various 
counties are assembled together, and the color scheme of the whole 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 



339 




Fig. 1G2. — A carefully planned exhibit. 

display is very effective. The center frame is supposed to repre- 
sent a glass jar in shape. It is painted white, with a gilt band 
painted around the top to represent a lacquered jar cap. The 
white wooden frame is lined inside w4th white cheesecloth, and 
if a strong light is placed behind this cloth in the center it will 
shine through the clear liquid in the jars and make the products 
show up brighter and to much better advantage. This is an espe- 



340 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 




TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 341 

cially fine arrangement to show off effectively clear jellies, pre- 
serves, marmalades, and fruit juices. By placing products of one 
kind only on each shelf all around the frame an effective combi- 
nation of bands of color can be obtained. 

When exhibits are carefully planned and arranged it affords 
great pleasure to all who see them, and renders much easier the 
work of those who do the judging and place the blue ribbons 
(Fig. 162). 




Fig. 164. — Judging canned tomatoes and beans. 

Judging the exhibits, if well performed, serves as a means of 
establishing standards of quality that make for excellence. It 
emphasizes the importance of careful work, and of uniform pack- 
ing in standard containers and packages. 

Score Cards. — Such a card lists all the essential characteris- 
tics of a certain kind of product and assigns percentage numbers 
on a scale of a hundred; the more important items are given 
larger numbers, the less important items are given smaller num- 
bers, and the sum of the numbers is made 100. A product is ex- 
amined and compared by the judge with an ideal or perfect 
product; the ideal product would be scored 100; the product 
being judged Avill be discredited one or more points under the 
various items, and the score allowed it will be the sum of these 
discredits taken from the perfect score of 100 (Fig. 164). 

The use of the score card has come to be common in judging 
such materials, and such cards help greatly to emphasize the 
essential points. 



342 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

GENERAL SCORE CARD FOR CANNED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

Appearance Color 15 

Clearness 10 25 

Texture 10 

Flavor 20 

Uniformity Ripeness 10 

Appropriate size 5 15 

Pack (arrangement in glass or weight in tin) 15 

Container Label 5 

Neatness 5 

Appropriate package.. 5 15 

Total 100 




Fig. 165. — This cow has proved t( 



wonderful prize for this Tennessee girl. 



Every one who sees such an exhibit and hears the public 
judging will go away with an intelligent appreciation of the 
exhibit and be stimulated with a greater desire for improvement 
through better methods of work. 

Somewhat different scores are used for judging jelly, pre- 
serves, and relishes, and the following are only suggestive scores 
which will aid the judges and exhibitors bv calling attention to 
the essential points that make for high standards : 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 343 




-| . r 


^^K|^^^K^^<> 


A^ 


Jr^ 


I^^^^^^A ^^H| 


;--5vt':^^ 


^^ ^Hl^^''.-" - 49 






s-^ ^^^^Ei 


M 




'^^^^■^■^ i^ 'j^ 


i^-*4i; 



Fig. Itjtj. — A ^'iini. 



lon-i I iii'j^ (H ,i ktipoliiiii pad and an apron for tools, 
Degcribed on page 289, 



34:4 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Score Card for Jelly : 

Appearance Color 10 

Clearness 10 

Crystals (lack of ) . 5 25 

Consistency 40 

Flavor 20 

Container Label 5 

Neatness 5 

Appropriate size . . 5 15 

Total 100 

The pronounced yet natural color of the fruit is most desir- 
able. Natural fruit flavors and colors are much more artistic 
than artificially colored and flavored fancy jellies. Clear, spar- 
kling, transparent jelly with no signs of crystallization make the 
product attractive. The texture is tender and cuts easily. It 
breaks with distinct cleavage, and the angles retain shape. The 
glasses should be uniform in shape and of appropriate size, 
practical for use in the average home. The clean covers should 
fit tightly, and a small, neat label should be properly placed. 

Score Card for Preserves: 

Fruit .... Appearance (color and clearness) 10 

L^niformity of pieces 10 

Pack (arrangement) 10 

Flavor ' 15 

Texture 10 

Conttiiner 5 (50 

Syrup. . . .Clearness and color 10 

Flavor 15 

Consistency 10 

Proportion of juice 5 40 

Total 100 

The preserved product should retain as nearly as possible 
original shape, color, and flavor of the fresh fruit. Fmit flavors 
are often destroyed by use of too much sugar. The pieces 
should be plump and firm, yet tender and transparent, of uni- 
form size and arranged in the jar with reference to symmetry 
and best use of the space within the container. About one- 
fourth as much syrup as fruit is a fair proportion in a jar. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 345 




Fig. 167. — Municipal kitchen established in connection with municipal market. 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 




Fig. 168 — Municipal market, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1917 



346 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Score Card for Relishes: 

General appearance (color and clearness) 15 

Clioice and proportion of materials 10 

Size and uniformity of pieces 15 

Attractiveness of pack, garnisli, etc 10 

Flavor 25 

Texture of material 20 

Container 5 

Total 100 

The fresh, crisp texture is usually preferable in relishes. 
Pieces should be small, but of uniform size ; attractive packing 
and placing the garnish should Ije considered. Usually for 
relishes a narrow strip of sweet red pepper, a small whole hot 
pepper, and a snip of some spice are placed on each seam of the 
jar. The label is placed midway between these narrow strips and 
one-fourth inch from the bottom of the jar. 

Suggestions for Judging. — For judging vegetable and fruit 
pickles the general score card may be used. Those who exhibit 
should be familiar with the score cards and know what points 
will be considered in judging and understand why products do 
or do not win the blue ribbons. When the premium or highest 
award is not obtained the persons competing for it should know- 
how they can improve. 

Prizes. — The awarding of prizes should be most carefully 
planned, since more harm than good may be done if awards are 
not fairly made. Open competition offers stimulus to many, and 
large numbers strive to attain the mark of the goal. Money 
prizes are not always advisable rewards to offer, unless in the 
form of bank deposits. Such deposits often establish a basis for 
the beginning of a savings account. Prizes to be given in city 
and country are naturally of different types (Fig. 165). 

Appropriate prizes will tend to create a greater interest in 
country life. Many such prizes have been the starting point for 
much improvement and development about the home, especially 
where the prize continues to grow and proves a good investment 
for the time spent on it. Funds from prizes, and especia:lly, of 
course, from the sale of garden and canned products, have made 
possible further education for many Canning Club girls. 



TEACHING CANNING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES 347 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Ckeswell, Mary E., Georgia State College of Agriculture, " Girls' and 

Boys' Club Work — A Manual for Rural Teachers," Bulletin 101, 
February, 1916. Published by the State College of Agriculture, 
Athens, Ga. 

2. Christie, Geo. I., " Educational Contests in Agriculture and Home Eco- 

nomics," Farmers' Bulletin No. 255, Office of Experiment Station, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

3. DowDiLE, Miss Lois, and Wood, Mrs. Bessie Stanley, Georgia State 

College of Agriculture, " Girls' Club W^ork in Georgia," 1916. Pub- 
lished by the State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga. 

4. Lippincott's Farm Manuals, 1914. Published by the J. B. Lippincott 

Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

5. McKiMMON, Jane S., " Marketing the Canning Club Products," article 

in the Couvtry Gentleman, issued June 3, 1916. Published by the 
Curtis Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 

6. Norton, J. B. J., " Exliibiting, Classifying, and Judging Homemade 

Products," Hayettsville, Md. 25 cents. 

7. Ree.se, Madge J., "Judging Houseliold Exhibits," September, 1916. 

Published by the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. 

8. Tracy, W. W., Sr., " Saving Vegetable Seeds for the Home and Market 

Garden," 1917, Farmers' Bulletin No. 884, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

9. LTnited States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 

Office of Extension Work in the South, B-511-i, ''Canning Club 
Record Book." Published by the Office of Extension Work in the 
South, States Relations Service, Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

10. United States Department of Agriculture, A-82, " Canning Club and 
Home Demonstration W^ork " (Organization Circular). Published 
by tlie Office of Extension Work in the South, States Relations Ser- 
vice, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

*11. United States Department of Agriculture, States Relations Service, 
bulletins published by the Office of Investigations on Farmers' Insti- 
tutes and [Movable Schools. Published by the States Relations 
Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

12. Yearly Reports, Home Gardening Association, Sixth and St. Clair 

Streets, Cleveland, Ohio. 

13. Yearly Reports, Philadelphia Vacant Lot Cultivation Association, 2211 

Land Title Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 

14. Hall, Bolton, " Three Acres and Liberty," Published by [Macmillan 

Company, New York City, N. Y. 



CHAPTER XXI 
CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 

With the greater efficiency in canning that many of our home 
makers have acquired, it is but natural that they also should like 
to attempt meat canning. For many a home in the country this 
seems to be the only means by which at all times a supply of meat 
can be available without having to resort to the use of cured meats 
or having to buy from the markets of the nearby towns, which 
often is difficult and undesirable on the hot summer days. 

The scarcity of meat under present conditions makes it neces- 
sary to use what is butchered on the fai*m to the greatest advan- 
tage. This may be done by canning all parts of the meat, even 
the bones and sinews being utilized in making soup stock, which is 
canned for future meals. The value of the by-products derived 
from different parts of the carcass is often overlooked and this 
results in much waste. 

It is of vital importance that the principles of sterilization be 
mastered before attempting to can meat. 

Prevention of Spoilage. — Referring to the description of bac- 
terial action on foods (Chapter IT), it must be emphasized that it 
is imperative to use a one-period processing with a tempera- 
ture of not less than 250 degrees of moist steam heat in order 
to sterilize canned meats sufficiently. Many varieties of bacteria 
feed on protein food. When the protein is broken up during the 
process of decomposition many substances are formed, of whieli 
some (ptomaines) are dangerous to health. Other bacteria pro- 
duce by their action certain toxins or poisonous substances that 
may bring disease or death to man. It is therefore of the utmost 
importance in the canning of meats to observe absolute cleanliness 
in the handling of the meat and to use only such products for 
canning as are known to be from healthy animals, which are 
butchered and prepared in a sanitary manner. All the bacteria 
that are dangerous to man and that cause spoilage are killed 
348 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 349 

even in the spore stao:e when subjected to a temperature of 
250° moist heat, which is directl}" applied for a period of tifteen 
minutes. After the cans are hermetically sealed it is then 
necessaiy to subject them to such a temperature for a period 
long enough to insure that every part of the product in the 
can has been subjected to this temperature for the period given. 
This means, of course, sterilization for a longer period than that 
just mentioned. 

Necessary Equipment. — For the successful canning of meat 
and sea food it will be necessary to use a steam-pressure canner 
of the type previously described (Chapter VII). Besides the 
canner a soldering outfit (Chapter IV) is necessary. Large 
utensils, in the shape of dish pans, roasting pans, kettles, etc., 
will be needed in order to handle the meat quickly and efficiently. 

Containers. — All shell fish and crustaceans should be packed 
in inside-lacquered tins., When vinegar or lemon juice has been 
used in preparation of meats for canning, this type container 
should also be used. Other meat products may be packed in 
plain tin cans. The No. 2 cans are large enough when canning 
meat in the home. Where there is a large family No. 3 cans 
may be used for certain products. Glass containers are not 
as desirable to use on accovuit of the danger of breakage and 
the difficulty of obtaining first-class iiibber rings. Rubber rings' 
deteriorate very quickly in a hot and moist climate. The meat 
will spoil if the least crack in the rubber ring permits the access 
of air to the contents of the jar. 

The Selection of Fish and Meats. — The canning of sea food 
should not be attempted unless the fish are absolutely fresh, 
because all kinds of fish and sea food spoil quickly. All meats 
for home canning must be from healthy animals or fowls and 
in first-class condition. They should be handled with care before 
butchering, in order not to bruise the meat and thereby cause 
formation of blood clots. Detailed directions for butchering 
and cutting up of meats are given in Chapter XVI, and are 
equally applicable where the meat is to be canned. 

Preparation of Meat for Canning (Figs. 169 and 170). — All 
meat should be made ready for canning just as it would be pre- 



350 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



pared for serving, except it is not necessary to continue cooking 
until the meat is entirely tender, as the canning process will 
finish the cooking. In order to preserve the flavor of the home 

cooking the meats should be 
, T-y^ M- I , i^^ , J roasted, broiled or stewed, 

/' . and seasoned l)ef ore can- 
ning. All parts of the ani- 
mal must be utilized. The 
hams or rounds can be used 
for roast; the loin (sirloin 
and tenderloin) can be used 
for roast or steak ; the shoul- 
der can be used for roast 
or in other meat preparations. 
Part of the neck and flank (or 
cheaper cuts of meat) can be 
utilized for Hungarian gou- 
lash or stews, or gi'ound up 
for sausage meat or Ham- 
burger steak. The head can 
be utilized for soup stock. 
The head of a young calf can 
be used for mock turtle stew 
or soup ; of a hog, for head 
cheese. The brains can be 
soaked in water to remove the 
blood, then parboiled and 
canned. Sweet breads may 
be blanched and canned plain 
or be prepared in various palatable dishes and canned. The kid- 
neys should be soaked in water, split open and fried or made into 
kidney stew before canning. The liver can be sliced and fried 
with onions or made into liver sausage or palatable liver paste. 
The lungs of a hog can be used for lung sausage or certain stews. 
The feet can be cleaned, the hoofs removed, and used in the 
preparation of gelatin. All the bones cut out of the meat, both 
raw bones and those removed from the roasts or steaks, can be 




Fig. 169. — The desirable temperature for 
cooling meat is 34° to 40° Fahrenheit. 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



351 



iitili.'=:ed in the making of soup stock. Cereals combined with 
meat in the making of sausage, potted meats, etc., increase the 
amount of the finished product, improve the texture, and are 
recommended. 

Canning. — All meats, after preparation and cooking, as out- 
lined above, should be cut in pieces that will pass through the 
can opening. Pack the meat while still warm into hot sterilized 




Fig. 170. — A pork should not be cut up until it is thoroughly cooled. 

cans and fill the space between the pieces of meat with a boiling 
hot liquid made by adding boiling water to the pan grease which 
was left after the frying or roasting. No pieces of meat should 
touch the top of the can, and the liquid should be added to 
within half an inch from the top of the can. 

Sealing, Exhausting, and Processing, — The sealing is done 
immediately after filling the can (see page 64). Clean the top 
of the can and remove all trace of grease to obtain a perfect 
seal. In case the meat has cooled before filling the cans or before 
the sealing is accomplished, the cans must be exhausted, in the 
same way as vegetable products are exhausted, for a period of 



353 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

from five to ten minutes, tlien tipped immediately and put in 
the processing retort. (As stated, exhausting is not necessary 
when foods are put boiling hot into the cans and sealed immedi- 
ately, as the steam rising from the hot liquid will effectually 
drive out the excess of air. The processing is done in a steam- 
pressure canner for the periods given in the different recipes.) 

RECIPES 

Before using the following recipes be sure that nothing but 
absolutely fresh meat, which has been handled in a sanitary 
manner, is canned. 

When butchering on the farm, the meat is ready to prepare 
for canning as soon as no animal heat remains and the meat is 
cold. 1'he meat can be prepared for canning accordnig to the 
recipes given or may be seasoned according to any individual 
desire, but the time for processing under steam pressure must 
be followed. 

Roast Meat. — Select the piece of meat wanted for roast, trim 
and wipe with a clean, dam]) cloth. Heat some grease in a roast- 
ing pan. Put in the meat, sear quickly and turn until sides are 
seared, to prevent the loss of meat juice during cooking. As soon 
as well seared, sprinkle with salt and ])epper to taste. Add some 
boiling water to the grease in the roasting pan. Baste frecpiently. 
Turn the meat from time to time and roast so it is nicely browned. 
Cook until meat is done (it should not be red in the centre) 
without cooking it entirely tender. Slice and pack into cans to 
within one-half inch from top of can. Add lioiling water to the 
gravy in the roasting pan and pour over the meat until it isi 
covered. Leave at least one-fourth inch space between gravy and 
top of can. 

The above general recipe may be seasoned to suit the individual 
taste, and roast may be larded or trimmed with sprigs of parsley, 
cloves, etc., according to desire. 

For a Beef Roast weighing 8 to 10 pounds, use 2 to 3 table- 
spoons of grease, 1 to 2 tablespoons of salt (according to taste), 
1/2 to 1 teaspoon of pepper (to taste), and 1/0 to 1 cup of boiling 
water. Baste frequently. 

For Pork Roast. — Season as for beef. If ham is used and 
skin is left on, cut with point of knife just through skin, so as 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



353 



to dice skin, and trim with cloves and little tufts of parsley (if 
desired). Add two small turnips to roasting- pan. Leave skin 
side up (do not turn), baste frequently and cook until skin is 
nicely browned arid crisp. 

For Roast Ham. — Where skin and fat are removed before 
roasting, lard with narrow strips of larding pork alternating with 
rows of little tufts of parsley, Add one small turnip and 1 




Fig. 171. — Hams ready to roast. 



small root of celeriac, a few cloves and five or six whole pepper- 
corns to roasting pan. jMeat may be rubbed with clove of garlic 
if desired. Season as for beef roast. Baste frequently (Fig. 171). 

For Roast Veal.; — Lard nicely and trim with parsley. Use 
seasoning as for beef roast, add a few carrots and one small onion 
to roasting pan. 

For Foast Mutton, Lamb or Kid. — Trim in rows with small 
tufts of parsley, season as for beef, add a few carrots to roasting 
pan. 

Processing All Roasts. — For all kinds of roast : Cap (exhaust 
5 minutes if meat and gravy have cooled ; if cold, exhaust 10 
23 



354 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

minutes; if hot, exhausting is not necessary), tip and process 
in steam-pressure canner as follows : 

No. 1 cans, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 45 to 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 to 00 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

In case meat is fat, time of processing must be prolonged 10 
minutes. 

Meat Loaf (Boiled Meat Scraps). — Use meat scraps, boil 
and let cook, run through meat grinder twice and mix thoroughly 
with the ingredients mentioned below for each 5 pounds of 
chopped meat. The meat scraps left on the bones when cutting 
up an animal for canning, and boiled with the bones for soup 
stock, may be removed from the bones after the soup stock is 
made and utilized according to this recipe. 

5 tablespoons of bread crumbs 2 to 3 bay leaves broken up finely 

4 or 5 teaspoons of salt (or salt or powdered 

to taste) 2 teaspoons crushed celery seed 

iy2 to 2 teaspoons pepper Onion juice or finely chopped onion 

3 teaspoons poultry seasoning or may be added to taste 

sage 2 eggs beaten together, or 

1 teaspoon cloves 1 package of gelatine dissolved in 

% teaspoon allspice a little cold water 

i/> to 1 teaspoon thyme 1 or 2 cups soup stock, according 

to dryness of meat 

Mix thoroughly and heat, fill while hot into No. 1 flat or No. 2 
cans to within one-half inch of top of can, cap, exhaust 5 minutes, 
tip and process: 

No. 1 flat cans, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Corned Beef. — ^Prepare corned beef as per recipe given in 
Chapter XVI. When ready to can, place meat in a kettle and 
cover with cold water. Bring slowly to a boil and simmer for 
one hour. Remove meat and cut in pieces that can pass through 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 355 

can openings. Return soup or liquid in which the meat was 
boiled to fire and season with bay leaves, cloves and nutmeg to 
taste. Pack meat in cans and cover with the seasoned soup to 
which some gelatine dissolved in cold water has been added. 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes if cooled, tip and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

No. 2 cans may also be processed for 1% hours at 235° Fahrenheit, or 

8 pounds of steam pressure. 

Hungarian Goulash. — 

2 pounds of meat (Beef, Veal, or 1 to 2 bay leaves 

Heart of Pork may be used) 6 whole cloves 

2 ounces butter or any good fat 6 peppercorns 

2 onions (medium size) chopped 1 blade mace 

fine 1 pinch of thyme 

1 carrot (medium size) finely sliced 1 tablespoon finely chopped parsley 

1 stalk celery cut in small pieces Salt and pepper to taste 

1 pint tomatoes (canned or fresh Paprika to taste 

tomatoes) A little flour 

Cut the meat into one-inch squares and sprinkle with flour 
which has been seasoned with salt and pepper. INIelt the fat 
in a frying pan, add the chopped onions, carrot, and celery 
when fat is hot and brown lightly; add the meat and brown, 
while stirring frequently with a spoon to keep from scorch- 
ing. When nicely browned empty into a stewpan and add 
bay leaves, cloves, peppercorns, mace and thyme tied up in a 
little bag of cheesecloth, also tomatoes or tomato puree. Cover 
with water or soup stock and simmer for 45 minutes (for 2 hours 
if it is to be served at once and not canned). Remove the bag 
of spices, and season by adding salt, pepper, and paprika to taste. 
Soy or Worcester sauce may be added in small quantity if 
desired. Add the parsley. Fill hot in cans, cap, tip, and process : 

No. 1 flat cans, 35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 45 minvites at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds pressure. 

Serve with mashed potatoes garnished with chopped cucum- 
bers or pickles. 



35(S SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

In making goulash the cheaper euts of meat may l)e used. 
If the different ingredients in this recipe are not at hand a good 
goulash can be made by using meat, fat, onions, tomatoes, flour, 
salt and pepper, and leaving out the balance of the ingredients. 

Goulash may also be made from meat scraps. 

UTILIZATION OF FATS 

All fats should he saved, rendered, clarified and kept for use 
in the household. It is necessary to prepare the drippings with 
great care if food fried in them is to be palatable. Fat of mutton, 
if intermixed, is not desirable to use for frying fish, vegetables or 
for baking purposes, since it will impart the peculiar flavor of 
mutton to the product. IMutton fat should, however, be clarified 
and saved, as it can be used for the frying and roasting of lamb 
and mutton and in other food preparation, where there w'ill be no 
objection to the nuitton flavor. Fried food (beef, cutlets, fish, 
etc.) which is to be served cold should be cooked in vegetable oils 
or margarine, as frying in drippings will form white and some- 
what hard edges on the meat when cold. Fried fish and beef 
which are to be served hot are better cooked in drippings than in 
butter, as this fat can be heated to a higher temperature without 
easily scorching. 

Preparation of Drippings. — The best prepared drippings 
must be without odor or taste and can be prepared either from 
hog leaf lard or from beef kidney fat or from both kinds of 
fat mixed. 

Leaf lard and beef kidney fat should be full, round and finu 
to look at. Soak the fat in water for twelve hours, changing the 
water several times. This soaking will partly eliminate the tal- 
low taste, and the membranes covering the fat will be more easily 
removed. All glands and everything bloody and unappetizing 
must be carefully cut away. Chop the fat finely or put it 
through a coarse meat chopper and place in a well-cleaned iron 
kettle for rendering. (A good enamelled vessel should not be 
used, as the enamel will suffer from the high temperature of the 
boiling fat.) Add half as much water as you have of lard and 
begin cooking. As soon as the water boils, carefully remove the 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA POODS 357 

scum as it forms, and let the fat boil until all water is evapo- 
rated and the fat entirely melted. (If fat was put over the fire 
in a kettle without water added, it would easily brow'u and have 
a burned taste. Skimming also helps to procure a good flavor.) 
All rendering of fat must be done over a slow fire in uncovered 
vessels, as it is believed that steam carries away strong flavors. 
When the water is all evaporated and the fat melting, dip up a 
little at a time and strain it through a clean cloth into hot stone 
crocks, lard buckets or jars. All the fat should not ])e poured 
at once through a strainer made of netting soldered to a tin 
body, as it might heat it enough to melt tlie solder. The filled 
crocks or cans should be well covered and stored in a cool, dry, 
dark place. The last part of the fat in the kettle usually becomes 
lu'own and has a little burnt flavor. It should therefore not be 
mixed with the clarified drippings, but be put into a separate 
vessel or mixed with the poorer qualities of fat. 

The cracklings should be pressed to remove all liquid fat. 
The pieces left may then ])e ground and used for chicken feed. 
The cracklings, if not browned too much, may also be used with- 
out pressing for making crackling bread. They may be canned 
for that purpose. 

Clarifying. — All fats may be clarified by boiling them 
with several pieces of raw Irish potatoes. Be sure to cook 
until all water has evaporated. It is advisable to have three or 
more receptacles for saving fat, so as to keep the different kinds 
separate. 

When rendering suet or tallow it can be improved by melting 
it and pouring it while hot into a bucket of cold water. When 
almast hard, knead it and form into little balls of the size of an 
eg^. Cover these suet balls with a saturated salt solution. (Use 
a plate or wooden cover that fits inside of the vessel and keep it 
weighted down, so the suet will be kept under the brine.) Avoid 
the use of a wooden cover made of yellow pine or any wood that 
might affect the flavor of the suet. By salting down suet in this 
manner, it can be kept for a long time and later be mixed with 
other fats as they can be had. Two parts of suet and one of 
leaf lard melted down and clarified together give fat of good 



358 SUCCESSFUT. CANNING AND PRESERVING 

odor and color and one which is softer than suet alone. It is 
particularly useful for frying and for shortening foods which 
have distinctive flavors. 

Clarified drippings made from leaf lard and beef kidney fat 
will be found excellent for cooking doughnuts and for deep fry- 
ing. It is also good for frying fish cutlets, for frying or roasting 
beef and may be used for baking pancakes and waffles. It can 
also be used for making brown gravies, etc. If used in place of 
butter for baking purposes, it must be remembered to add a little 
salt, as it is not salty like butter. 

Soup fats and fats from fried meats should be heated and 
freed from any water that might be present. Then clarify, 
strain and keep in separate containers from the drippings made 
from leaf lard and beef kidney fat, as they will not be so good 
in quality. 

Fat from smoked ham and hacon must also ])e saved sepa- 
rately. Clarify and keep for use in food where no objections 
will be raised to the smoked flavor. It may, for instance, be used 
for frying Hamburger steak and highly flavored foods. 

Fat from deer and other game should be soaked in many 
changes of cold water for forty-eight hours in order to get rid of 
the game flavor. Remove the membranes covering the fat, cut, 
render it and clarify. It can be used for cooking, but does not 
equal the mixture of leaf lard and kidney fat. 

Fat from ducks, geese and chickens should also be saved, 
clarified and mixed with a little beef kidney fat in order to 
harden it. It is very valuable in cooking and baking. 

Any fats that become rancid or are unfit for cooking pur- 
poses must not be thrown away, but should be used for making 
household soaps. 

To Make Soap. — Prepare a soda solution by dissolving 
eight ounces (chemically pure) caustic soda in five cupfuls of 
water. Canned lye is not of such pure quality, but good 
results have .been obtained by combining one can of lye with 
one quart of water. 

Render the fat and clarify it by boiling with slices of raw 
potatoes until the fat ceases to crackle. Strain while still warm 



CANNING jMEATS AND SEA FOODS 359 

throiig-h a clean muslin cloth. A whiter fat and whiter soap can 
be had if the fat is strained through fine charcoal or clay. 

Combine 2 pounds clean, warm fat with 1% pounds cool soda 
or Ij'e solution and stir with a stick until it is the consistency 
of honey, when it is ready to mold. Pour mixture into agate 
pans which have first been wet or into wooden molds lined with 
paraffin paper, and allow to stand until cool. Before it dries 
remove the paper and stack log cabin fashion for quick drying. 
Wrap and store in boxes. Soap should be kept until it is suffi- 
ciently dry not to ]>ecome soft as soon as wet. 

Perfume or extra cleansing material may be added during 
the saponifying before the molding consistency is reached. To 
this recipe add ly^ tablespoons borax, i/o cup ammonia. 

Toilet Soap. — For a good toilet soap use 2 pounds olive 
oil, cottonseed oil, or cocoanut oil, % pound white lard, I14 
cupfuls (chemically pure) caustic soda, 1 quart water, 6 drops 
lavender, and oil of geranium. Follow directions for making 
given in recipe above. 

Head Cheese. — Follow recipe given in Chapter XVI. When 
cooked and seasoned add a little gelatine dissolved in cold water, 
stir well and fill in No. 2 cans while hot ; cap, tip, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam- pressure. 

When ready to serve it, thoroughly chill the can before open- 
ing. Serve cold. 

Spare Ribs. — Roast the spare ribs in the usual way, seasoning 
to taste. Cook until done, browning them nicely. With a sharp 
knife cut down the inside of each rib, remove the rib bone and 
cut meat in pieces that can pass through can openings. Make 
grav>^ by adding water to the pan grease. Pack meat in cans 
and add the boiling hot gravy to within one-half inch from top 
of can. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



360 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Pork Sausage Cakes. — 

4 pounds lean pork 1 clove garlic, minced (may be 

2 pounds fat pork omitted) 

2 or 3 tablespoons salt, or salt to 2 bay leaves, powdered or broken 

taste in small pieces 

1 teaspoon black pepper 1 teas2)oon celery seed, crushed 

1 teaspoon red pepper (may be omitted) 

1 teaspoon chili pepper (to taste) (J to 12 tablespoons dry, finely 
y2 teaspoon allspice crumbed bread or cracker 

2 or 3 teaspoons sage (or poultry crumbs 

seasoning) 2 eggs beaten togetlier 

Mi to 1 teaspoon thyme Vs to 1 cup of sweet milk 

2 large onions, minced 

Knead well, form in cakes, fry in deep, fat until nicely 
browned, pour otiP excess of grease, add water and make gravy. 
Two or three cookings may be made in one lot grease. Pack 
the browned sausage cakes in cans, fill in with hot gravy to 
within one-half inch of top of can. Cap, exhaust 5 minutes 
(exhausting is not necessary if packed hot in cans and sealed 
at once), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° i'ahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Bologna Sausage. — Follow sausage recipes given in Chapter 
XVI. When cured and cooked, pack in cans, fill with hot liquid, 
in which sausage w^as Iwiled, to within one-half inch of top of can. 
Cap, tip, and process: 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Liver Sausage. — Beef, Veal, or Hog Liver. — Remove the 
membrane and cut away the large blood-vessels. Soak in water 
1 to 2 hours to draw out blood. Boil in fresh water until done. 
When cooled put through a food chopper or grate finely. Take 
half as much boiled fat pork as liver. Divide this fat into two 
portions; chop one portion into one-quarter-inch cubes; pass 
the other portion through the food chopper; mix all together 
thoroughly ; add salt, ground cloves, pepper, and a little grated 
onion to taste. A little thyme and marjoram may be added to 
suit the taste. (For a liver weighing l^^ pounds add % pound 
fat pork, 3 to 4 teaspoons salt, 1/2 teaspoon cloves, 1/0 teaspoon 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 361 

pepper, 1 small onion, 14 teaspoon thyme, and pinch of mar- 
joram.) This mixture is stuffed in large casings. If no casings 
are available, make casings of clean white muslin. Cover with 
boiling water, bring to a boil and boil for 10 minutes. Pack in 
cans, fill in with the water in which the sausages were boiled. 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes if cooled (if packed hot, exhausting is 
not necessary), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 50 minutt's at 250" Fahionheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
Xo. 3 cans, (35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

This liver sausage may also be made from the raw liver and 
raw pork. In that case proceed as for above recipe as to season- 
ing, etc., but process the cans 10 minutes longer at temperature 
given. 

May be served hot or cold. 

LIVER PASTES 

Foie Gras Paste. — Thoroughly clean three pounds of fresh 
goose livers. If any green from the gall-bladder is found it 
must be removed. Wash and boil with a little water until the 
inside is no longer rare. Have 4 pounds of fat pork well 
boiled, and when cold mix with livers and pass through meat 
grinder. Mix 2 or 3 softened stale rolls or corresponding amount 
of stale, dried bread crumbs. Pass again through meat grinder. 
Then knead with 1 ounce of salt, pepper, cloves, and spices to 
taste, and if desired, 3 ounces canned truffles cut in about i/i 
inch cubes. Finally mix with the beaten up whites of 11 eggs 
and put the mixture in cans. Small size cans are preferred. Cap, 
exhaust 5 minutes, tip, and process: 

4-ounce glass jars, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenlieit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 1 flat tin cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Veal or Hog Liver Paste. — 

1 medium size liver (about 3 1 teaspoon ground cloves 

pounds) 1 small onion, grated 

iy2 pounds fresh fat pork 3 eggs 

14 pound butter Milk, as needed 

14 pound flour Salt to taste 

1 teaspoon pepper 



3G3 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

The fat is chopped very fine. The butter aud Hour is cooked 
together in a kettle, then thinned with milk to a very soft 
gruel. Into this put the chopped fat. Cook over a very low 
fire in order not to scorch until the fat is pretty well cooked out. 

In the meantime get the liver ready. Wash well, remove the 
skin and cut aw'ay all veins and membranes. Scrape and pass 
the liver through a meat grinder, then place it on a fine hair 
sieve or strainer, pour the white sauce, or thickening, over the 
liver and rub it all through the sieve. Stir three egg yolks 
into this strained liver mass and add 1 teaspoon pepper, 1 tea- 
spoon ground cloves, about 2 tablespoons of salt (added according 
to taste), 1 small grated onion and the beaten whites of the 
3 eggs. Pour into cans, but do not fill them entirely. Cap, 
exhaust 5 to 8 minutes, tip, and process: 

4-oiince glass jars, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenlieit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 1 flat tin cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. - 

Note. — A very good liver paste can be made by taking liver 
and fat pork as in above recipe, pass through meat grinder 
twice, stir well with 2 tablespoons salt, 1 teaspoon pepper, 1 
teaspoon ground cloves, 1 finely chopped medium size onion, 6 
tablespoons cracker or dried bread crumbs, 3 eggs beaten together, 
and I/O cup of sweet milk. Fill into cans, cap, exhaust, tip, and 
process as above stated. 

Roast Fowl. — Clean the fowl, wash, and wipe dry. If turkey, 
goose, or guinea fowl, lard the breast or cover it with thin slices 
of larding pork. For chicken and duck tie small piece of larding 
pork over breast. Put tw^o tablespoons lard and butter mixed 
in a roasting pan. Place in oven and when hot lay turkey or fowl 
in the hot grease and turn until seared on all sides. Season 
turkey or goose with 1 tablespoon of salt sprinkled all over, and 
% teaspoon of pepper (for smaller fowls use less salt and pepper) . 
Pour into roasting pan half a cup of boiling water. Place in 
oven to roast, and baste frequently A^dtli the liquid in the pan, 
tjurning the fowl once in a while to get it nicely browned. Cook 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 363 

until done without needing to be entirely tender. Remove from 
oven, place on platter, and cut meat from bones. Cut in pieces 
that can pass through can openings. Pack into cans. Skim 
excess of fat from gravy, and pour gravy over meat in cans until 
half an inch from top (if not enough gravy add boiling water). 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes (if cooled), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Game birds may be treated as above, but should be stuffed 
with some parsley. 

Soup. — The bones of the turkey, chicken, goose, or duck, with 
what little meat still clings to them, and the scalded and skinned 
feet are put on to boil in cold water (enough to cover) and 
simmered for several hours with seasoning until bones are ex- 
hausted for soup stock. Cook down until very strong, strain and 
fill hot into cans to within half an inch from top of can. Cap, 
tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenlieit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Potted Meat. — "What meat was left on the bones may now be 
removed and ground fine in a meat grinder, mixed with salt 
and spices to taste, a little soup stock or gelatine (dissolved in 
cold water) added. (Use to 1 pound of meat 1 or li/l> teaspoons 
salt, Y2 teaspoon pepper, other spices to suit taste.) Fill hot 
in No. 1 cans, cap, tip, and process: 

No. 1 flat cans, 35 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Fried Chicken (Spring Frier). — Clean in the usual manner, 
split lengthwise or cut in quarters. Sear in hot grease, sprinkle 
with salt and pepper or, if preferred, dip in flour or cracker 
crumbs mixed Avith salt and pepper. Fry until nicely browned 
in the same way as preparing for the table. The canning may 
now be done in difiPerent ways, as follows: 

Canning dry without removing the hones: Pack in thoroughly 
cleaned and sterilized cans, add no liquid. Cap, exhaust 8 
minutes, tip, and process : 



364 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESEEVING 

No. 2 cans, 1 hour and 'M minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Canning with gravy, without removing the hones: Pack in 
the sterilized cans, fill to within one-half inch from top of can 
Avith boiling hot gravy made from the pan grease with addition 
of water or soup stock, cap, tip, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 1 hour at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Canning after removing hones: Prepare as above stated, cut 
the cooked meat from bones and pack in sterilized cans, add 
hot gravy to within one-fourth or one-half inch from top of can. 
Cap, exhaust 5 minutes if meat and gravy have cooled, tip, and 
process : 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Falirenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Bones may be utilized for making soup stock as mentioned 
under description of roast fowl. 

Fricasseed Chicken. — Clean chicken in usual manner and cut 
in pieces. Place in a kettle with enough water to cover. Tie in 
a bunch, for each 'ly.^ pounds of chicken, 2 branches of parsley, 
1 small piece celery, a sprig of thyme, 1 bay leaf and small piece 
of leek. Add 1 teaspoon salt and i/o teaspoon pepper. Let boil 
for 15 minutes. Add 12 small peeled white onions and 1 good- 
sized potato, peeled and cut in little cubes. If desired 2 or 3 
ounces of sliced and diced pork may be added. Cook for 
1/2 hour. Remove chicken and herbs. Cut meat from bones and 
return it to the kettle. Allow it to boil and then pack hot in 
cans to within i/. inch from top, distributing meat and soup 
evenly in all cans. Add V^ teaspoon finely chopped fresh parsley 
to each can. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Falirenlieit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

When ready to serve empty contents of can into a sauce pan, 
heat and add a little Hour stirred with cold water for thickening. 
The beaten yolk of an egg and a little butter may also be added. 
Serve hot on toast. 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 365 

Chicken Gumbo. — 

1 chicken weigliing 4 or 5 pounds 2 red pepper pods 

(old fowl may be used) 1/2 teaspoon thyme 

6 good sized onions 2 tablespoons salt (or salt to taste) 

2 No. 3 cans of tomatoes, or corre- 4 quarts boiling water 

sponding amount of fresh 2 No. 3 cans chopped or sliced oki-a 

3 tablespoons butter or a corresponding amount of 
3 tablespoons lard fresh sliced okra 

6 whole cloves Parsley to taste 

2 bay leaves Celery to taste 
A few peppercorns 

Clean and cut to pieces. Melt the lard and butter in a frying 
pan. When hot put in the chicken and fry to a nice brown 
color. Remove the chicken and place in a stew pan. Peel 
the onions and chop fine; put them into the hot grease in 
which the chicken was browned and fry brown. Add this 
with what grease is left in the pan to the chicken. To this 
add the tomatoes, cloves, bay leaves, peppercorns, pepper 
pods, thyme, and boiling water. Let the whole mixture simmer 
until meat slips from the bones. Take out the bones, mince the, 
meat, return it to the soup mixture, add the salt, some chopped 
parsley and celery and the canned okra. (If fresh okra is used, 
it should be added when tomatoes are added.) 

Fill boiling hot in cans, cap, tip, and process. 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Serve with cooked rice moulded in a cup, and the chicken 
gumbo poured around it. 

Pigeons. — Young Birds. — Dress birds, wash well, lard with 
little strips of salted fat bacon in a row on each side of breast 
or use little strips of fat bacon by side of breast, stuff with some 
parsley and giblets, and roast for one-half hour, basting fre- 
quently. Salt to taste. Split lengthwise, place in cans, pour 
hot gravy over them to within one-half inch of top of can. Cap, 
tip, and process: 
No. 2 cans, 1 hour and 15 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds steam 

pre.ssure. 
No. 3 cans, 1 hour and 30 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or Ih pounds steam 

pressure. 



366 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Old Birds. — Dress birds, wash well, put three tablespoons of 
lard, three of butter in a kettle. In this frj^ the pigeons to a 
nice rich brown color. Have some onions peeled, chop fine and 
brown in butter or lard or a mixture of these. (For 12 pigeons 
take % of a pound of onions.) Add browned onions and fat 
to pigeons. Season with some peppercorns, two cloves, one or two 
bay leaves (cloves and bay leaves may be omitted if not desired). 
Cover with water, simmer until the meat is tender and may be 
removed from the bones. Add from time to time a little boiling 
water to keep birds covered. When the birds are tender, remove 
from the fire. Remove the meat from the bones. Return the 
meat to the gravy, adding to taste, salt, chopped parsley, and 
celery. Pack while boiling hot in cans and fill with gravy to 
within one-half inch of top. Cap, tip, and process: 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Small game birds may be canned like pigeons. Blackbirds 
treated like old pigeons make a very nice stew. When small 
game birds are canned with the bones left in, they should be 
processed for No. 2 cans, one hour and fifteen minutes at 15 
pounds pressure. 

RABBITS 

Rabbit Sausage with Pork Flavor. — Clean the jack 
rabbit and wash in salted water to draw out the blood. Cut 
meat from bones and remove the thick membranes covering back 
and thighs. Pass meat through meat grinder twice. If desired 
to have pork flavored sausage cakes, add 2 pounds of fat pork, 
ground up fine for each 4 pounds of rabbit meat and season as 
per recipe for sausage cakes ( page 357 ) . Form into little cakes 
and fry in deep fat until nicely browned. Can as sausage cakes, 
filling can to within one-half inch from top with hot gravy. 
Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Rabbit Sausage. — May also be made without the addi- 
tion of pork. Proceed as above, grind the meat, weigh it. To 
6 pounds of meat take 2 onions, finely minced (if desired onions 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



367 



may be left out of cakes, but should then be sliced, browned, and 
packed in can with sausage cakes), 2 tablespoons salt, 2 teaspoons 
pepper, 2 bay leaves powdered or broken in small pieces, a pinch 
each of thyme and allspice, 8 to 12 tablespoons of finely crumbed 
dry bread or cracker crumbs, 2 eggs, beaten together and i/o to 1 
cup of sweet milk. Knead well, make into little cakes, fry until 
nicely browned in deep fat. Pack into cans and add gravy made 




,«.... FRIED 

Fig. 172. — Rabbit prepared as for serving may be canned. 

from part of grease (in which cakes were fried) with water 
added. Cap, tip, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

Rabbit Stew, — After the rabbit is cleaned and washed 
in salt water to draw out the blood, cut meat from bones, 
remove tough membranes and cut meat in pieces about 1 inch 
square. Sprinkle with flour and salt and prepare as per recipe 
for Hungarian Groulash. Fill into cans while hot; cap, tip, and 
process : 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



3fi8 



SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



Jugged Hare (Belgian Hare or Jack Rabbit may be used) 
(Figs. 172 and 173).— Clean the hare, remove the tough skin and 
membranes covering the meat. Cut in pieces of about 2 inch 
length. Cut V2 pound of bacon into dice of about half an inch 
square. 

Mix together 3 teaspoons salt, 1 teaspoon black pepper, 4 tea- 
spoons flour, 1/^ teaspoon thyme, 1 bay leaf broken or crushed, 
3 teaspoons finely chopped onions, 1 teaspoon grated nutmeg, and 
a pinch of ground cloves. 




Fig. I7.'->. — A purebred Belgian hare. 

Roll the diced bacon and one-fourth of the meat of the hare 
in this mixture. Melt 2 tablespoons of butter, or lard and butter 
mixed in a saucepan, when hot add the bacon and all the meat, 
brown nicely, add a little hut water or soup stock and simmer 
for i/> hour. Fill hot into cans ; cap, tip, and process : 
No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 2.50° Falirenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 55 minutes at 250° Falirenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

CANNING PISH 

Do not attempt canning of fish unless absolutely sure they 
are fresh (Fig. 174). As soon as fish are caught it is well to kill 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 



369 



them with a knife and let the blood run out. Scale fish (it is 
easier to remove scales if fish are just dipped into boiling water). 
If skin is very tough, remove it and wash the fish clean. Remove 
entrails and the dark membrane that in some fish {e.g., mullets) 
covers the abdominal cavity. For small fish the backbone may 
be left in. For the larger fish remove backbone and utilize it 
with what meat adheres to it for making fish chowder. 

In order to draw out all blood before canning, soak fish in a 




Fig. 174. — Sorting fish for canning. 

strong brine. One ounce salt to 1 quart water from 10 minutes 
to 1 hour, according to thickness of fish. The use of a heavier 
brine will harden the meat and make it firmer for canning. Do 
not use brine more than once. 

Plain Canning. — Remove fish from brine, drain well and cut 

in lengths which will fit into cans. Pack closely in the can to 

within one-half inch from the top. Add a small amount of salt 

(about i/i{ to Y2 teaspoon). Do not add any water. Cap, place 

24 



370 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

cans in steam-pressure canner and exhaust for 10 minutes at 10 
pounds of steam pressure. Open peteoek on retort (canner) and 
let steam escape, remove cover and take out cans. Wipe top of 
cans and tip. Return to canner and process: 

No. 2 cans, GO minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 1.5 pounds of steam pressure. 

The fish may also be packed in cans as above described, then 
cap, exhaust 10 minutes at boiling temperature (212° F.), tip, 
and process. 

No. 2 cans, 80 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

In case large bones are left in the fish, the No. 2 cans must be 
processed for 1 hour and 35 minutes at 250^ or 15 pounds of 
steam pressure. 

Remove the cans from the canner and cool immediately after 
processing by immersing them in a tub of cold water. 

Fried Fish. — Clean the fish and remove entrails. Split along 
the back and remove the -backbone. Place in strong salt water 
and leave in this brine, according to the thickness of the meat, 
from 10 minutes to 1 hour. This will draw out blood and harden 
fish. Drain, wipe dry, and cut in pieces that can pass through 
can openings. Dip in beaten egg or cornmeal (may be omitted) 
and put in frying basket. Fry in deep fat until nicely browned. 
Drain well and place the pieces on thick, coarse brown paper to 
absorb excess fat. Pack in No. 2 cans (inside lacquered cans 
best) to within i^. inch from top of can. Do not add any liquid. 
Cap and exhaust 8 minutes, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 1 hour and 30 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of 

steam pressure. 

Fish Cakes and Dumplings of Forced Fish. — The best fish 
to use for forced fish is one with not too loose or soft meat. Either 
fresh water or salt water fish may be used. 

Scale the fish, wash and split along the back. Remove entrails, 
backbone, and ribs. "Wash again and wipe with a coarse linen 
cloth. With a knife scrape out the meat in order not to use 
tougher membranes. Chop the scraped meat very fine, and with 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 37I 

the help of a wooden potato masher and a wooden bowl mash and 
pound the fish with salt added until it forms a tough dough. 
Then for each li/^ pounds of scraped fish add i/4 pound butter, 
4 tablespoons potato starch or 6 tablespoons cornstarch, or wheat 
flour and cornstarch mixed. When mixed well stir in 3 eggs, 
one at a time, and add white pepper to taste. Stir in % to li/4 
quarts of sweet milk until the mass is of the right consistency. 
With a spoon drop the batter thus prepared in little cakes on a 
hot greased frying pan and fry to a rich brown color. The 
dough may also be dropped as little dumplings into boiling salted 
water and cooked until done. Eemove and drain well. In either 
way pack in cans and fill in the space between the fish cakes 
or dumplings with boiling fish stock made by boiling the back- 
bones (with what meat adheres to them). Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

When serving the cakes, reheat on hot frying pan lightly 
greased. 

Fish Chowder. — 

4 Bermuda or white onions (medium 1 level tablespoon of butter 

size) diced 1 level teaspoon of white pepper 

3 potatoes, medium size, diced 1 to 2 level teaspoons of salt or salt 

1 pound of fish picked from the to taste 

bones Water to cover 

The backbones cut out of large fish, with what meat adheres 
to them, and other fish scraps may be used for fish chowder. 

Put over the fire in cold water (just enough to cover) and 
cook until meat can easily be removed from bones. Take up fish 
and remove bones, strain fish soup, and return soup with the 
picked fish meat to the kettle. Add diced onions, diced potatoes, 
butter, and white pepper to taste. Simmer until vegetables are 
half done. Salt to taste. Pack hot in cans. Cap, tin, and process : 

No. 2 cans, 45 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 60 minutes at 2.50° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 



372 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Fish Roe. — Use only the roe of freshly caught fish and only 
such roe as is known to be good to eat. (The roe of some fish, 
for instance of the garfish, is not considered fit to eat.) Clean 
the roe by removing the shreds and strings adhering to it and 
wash well in cold water, being careful not to break the roe. 
Soak for about 2 hours in brine made by dissolving 6 ounces 
of salt in 6 quarts of water. Drain and pack into No. 2 cans. 
Cap and exhaust 10 minutes at boiling temperature (212'^ F.), 
tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, T.") minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 

Inside lacquered tin cans are preferable. 

Shrimps. — Shrimps should be used when absolutely fresh, as 
they deteriorate very quickly. They may be peeled or left with 
shell on until cooked. In either way they are boiled in salted 
Avater, 1 pound of salt to a gallon of water. Do not put shrimps 
into the water until it is boiling. If to be packed wet, boil from 
5 to 6 minutes. If to be packed dry, boil from 6 to 8 minutes. 
If they were not peeled before boiling, drain through a colander 
and sprinkle with salt. This will harden the meat and they can 
be peeled more easily. Shrimps should be packed in inside lac- 
quered tin cans and may be packed wet or dry. 

Wet Pack. — After shrimps are boiled and peeled, pack in 
cans and fill in with a weak brine to \Aath.:i i/o i^^ch from top 
of can (brine: 1 level teaspoon of salt to a quart of boiling 
water). Cap, exhaust 5 minutes, tip, and process: 

No. I cans, 12 to 15 minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 pounds of steam 

pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 20 to ">0 minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 pounds of steam 

pressure. 

Dry Pock. — After shrimps are boiled and peeled, as above 
mentioned, pack dry in cans, adding no liquid. Cap, exhaust 
8 minutes, tip and process : 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 373 

No. 1 cans, 60 minutes at 240° Falirenheit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 2 cans, 90 minutes at 240° Falirenheit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 

Note. — In case inside lacquered cans cannot be had, the 
shrimps can be put up in ordinary tin cans lined with good 
parclunent papjr at sides, bottom and top. They may also be 
put up in small glass jars. 

Drying of Shrimps. — After shrimps are boiled and peeled, as 
above stated, they may be spread on cheesecloth spread over the 
wire bottom of the evaporating trays and dried at a temperature 
of from 110° F. to 150° F. When thoroughly dry, they may be 
packed in dry, clean, glass jars, or in parchment paper lined 
boxes. 

Crab Meat. — To 5 gallons of hot water in a large kettle add 
1/4 pound of bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda). When 
the soda water boils add the live crabs and boil rapidly for 20 
minutes. Remove crabs and wash them in cold water. Pick out 
all meat, being careful not to include the shells in leg- and claw 
joints. Wash the meat in a weak brine (1 ounce of salt to 3 
quarts of water). Drain and pack in inside lacquered No. 1 
flat cans. Cap and exhaust 8 minutes. Tip and process : 

No. 1 cans, .35 minutes at 2.')0° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

As soon as time of processing is up, let out steam at once, 
open canner and quickly plunge cans into cold water, as otherwise 
the crab meat will become discolored. 

Oysters. — In canning oysters be sure they are absolutely 
fresh. Open the shells by hand and reject any oysters where the 
shell is partly open, as this is a sign that the oyster in this par- 
ticular shell is dead and unfit for use. Rinse oysters to be sure 
no pieces of shell or grit are put in the cans. Pack 16 ounces 
of oyster meat in a No. 2 can and fill with boiling brine (made 
in the proportion of I/4 pound of salt to 5 quarts of water) to 
within 1/2 inch from top of can. Cap and exhaust 10 minutes at 
boiling temperature (212° F.), tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 35 minutes at 240° Fahrenheit, or 10 pounds of steam pressure. 



374 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

Clam Chowder. — 

2 dozen cleaned clams chopped fine 3 large potatoes peeled and cut into 

2 quarts hot water dice 

2 medium, white onions, sliced 1 to 2 teaspoons salt (to taste) 

2 branches of celery, cut line 1 saltspoon pepper 

2 leeks, cut fine 3 laige tomatoes peeled and cut 

2 slices of pork or bacon cut into fine 

dice 14 teaspoon thyme 

1 teaspoon finely chopped parsley 

Heat the pork or bacon and fry the onions, celery and leek 
in the fat; add the liquid from the clams, water and potatoes, 
cook 10 minutes, add the clams, tomatoes, salt, pepper, and thyme 
(Worcester sauce according to taste may be added). Boil for 
10 minutes, add the parsley and fill hot into inside lacquered 
cans. Cap, tip, and process: 

No. 2 cans, 40 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 
No. 3 cans, 50 minutes at 250° Fahrenheit, or 15 pounds of steam pressure. 

When serving, equal amounts of butter and flour may be 
creamed together and added as thickening to the heated chowder. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What advantage, if any, has home canned meat over salted, smoked 

or dried meat? 

2. What causes spoilage of meat? 

3. What dangers, if any, from spoiled meat and what are the best precau- 

tions against spoilage of meat? 

4. What equipment is necessary for home canning of meats and sea foods? 

5. What kind or type of canner is necessary for canning meats and sea 

foods? Why? 

6. Why are "hot water" canners (with a temperature of 212° F.) or 

"water seal" canners (with a temperature of 214° F.) not safe 
to use for the canning of meats ? 

7. What is the first requirement of meats and fish for canning? 

8. How soon after butchering may meat be used for canning? 

9. How^ shoiild meat be prepared for canning? Fish? 

10. What advantage, if any, is there in cooking meat (roasting, broiling, 

frying, etc.) before canning? 

11. Describe how every part of the animal may be used. 

12. What seasonings are used in preparing meat for canning? 

13. In roasting meats for canning, how long should it be cooked? 



CANNING MEATS AND SEA FOODS 375 

14. What may be added to sausage meat, potted meats and liver paste to 

extend the meat flavor? 

15. What advantages, if any, have tin cans over glass jars for canning 

of meats and sea foods? 

16. How full should containers be packed with meat? With gravy? 

17. Can exhausting of cans before tipping be dispensed with? When? 

18. What temperature is necessary for perfect sterilization of canned meat 

(length of time depending on size of container and preparation and 
method of packing the meat) ? 

19. W^hen is it necessary to use inside lacquered tin cans? 

20. Why are glass containers impractical for canning of crab meat? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Anthony, G. A., and Ashbrook, F. G., 1917, "Killing Hogs and Curing 

Pork," Farmers' Bulletin No. 913, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

2. Hamel, G. T., " Modern Practice of Canning Meat," 1911. Published by 

Brecht Company, St. Louis, Mo. $5.00. 

3. Lund, F. P.. " Meat Canning," Circular 92, States Relations Service, 

Office of Extension W^ork, South, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. 

4. Farmers' Bulletin No. 496, " Raising Belgian Hares and Other Rabbits "; 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 684, " Squab Raising '' ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 
697, "Duck Raising"; Farmers' Bulletin No. 791, "Turkey Rais- 
ing " ; Farmers' Bulletin No. 8S9, " Backyard Poultry Keeping." 
Division of Publication, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 



APPENDIX 



ADDRESS LIST OF STATE INSTITUTIONS FROM WHICH AGRICULTURAL 
EXTENSION WORK UNDER THE SMITH-LEVER ACT IS DIRECTED 

For information concerning club work in any state write to the Director 
of Extension at the State College of Agriculture. 



STATE 



ADDRESS 



Alabama .... 
Arizona 

Arkansas .... 
California . . . 

Colorado .... 

Connecticut . . 
Delaware .... 
Florida ...... 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana . . . . . 
Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky . . . 

Louisiana . . . . 

Maine 

Maryland . . . 

Massachusetts 
Michigan 

376 



Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. 

College of Agriculture, University of Arizona, 

Tucson. 
Extension Director, Old State House, Little Rock. 
College of Agriculture, University of California, 

Berkeley. 
State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Col- 
lins. 
Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, 
Delaware College, Newark. 
College of Agriculture, University of Florida, 

Gainesville. 
Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens. 
Extension Director, the State House. Boise. 
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, 

Urbana. 
Purdue University, Lafayette. 
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic 

Arts, Ames. 
Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan. 
College of Agriculture, Tlie State University, 

Lexington. 
Louisiana State University and Agricultural and 

Mechanical College, Baton Rouge. 
College of 'Agriculture, University of Maine, 

Orono. 
Maryland State College of Agriculture, College 

Park. 
Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst. 
Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing. 



APPENDIX 



377 



STATE 


ADDRESS 


Minnesota 


College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, 




University Farm, St, Paul. 


Mississippi 


Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, 




Agricultural College. 


Missouri 


College of Agriculture, University of Missouri, 
Columbia. 




Montana 


Montana State College of Agriculture and Me- 




chanic Arts, Bozeman. 


Nebraska 


College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, 




Lincoln. 


Nevada 


College of Agriculture, University of Nevada, 




Reno. 


New Hampshire 


New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the 




]\Iechanic Arts, Durham. 


New Jersey 


Rutgers College, New Brunswick. 


New Mexico 


New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic 




Arts, State College. 


New York 


New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca. 
North Carolina College of Agriculture and Me- 


North Carolina 




chanic Arts, West Raleigh. 


North Dakota 


North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural 




College. 


Ohio 


College of Agriculture, Ohio. State University, 




Columbus. 


Oklahoma 


Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, 




Stillwater. 


Oregon 


Oregon State Agricultural College, Corvallis. 


Pennsylvania 


Pennsylvania State College, State College. 
Rhode Island State College, Kingston. 


Rhode Island 


South Carolina 


Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, 




Clemson College. 


South Dakota 


South Dakota State College, Brookings. 


Tennessee 


College of Agriculture, University of Tennessee, 




Knoxville. 


Texas 


Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 




College Station. 


Utah 


Agricultural College of Utah, Logan. 


Vermont 


University of Vermont and State Agricultural 




College, Burlington. 


Virginia 


Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blackshurg. 
State College of Washington, Pullman, 


Washington 



378 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 



STATE 


ADDRESS 


West Virginia 


College of Agriculture, West Virginia University, 

Morgaiitown. 
College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, 

]\Iadison. 
College of Agriculture, University of Wyoming, 

Laramie. 


Wvoming 



ADDRESS LIST OF FIRMS FURNISHING SUPPLIES FOR CANNING 
AND PRESERVING 



Canning Outfits and Supplies 

American Can Company. Atlanta, Georgia Home canners, cans, and 

labels. 

Baelir, Mrs. Hermine. . .Baltimore, ^larvland ...Tray for boiler (.3 in, 1). 
2;) Garrison Lane. 

L. E. Collins & Co Washington, D. C Pennants and banners. 

41G lOth St., N. W. 

Eulianks, Geo. L Union City, Georgia ...Hot-water canners, cans. 

Farming Canning Ma- 
chine Company jNIeridian, Mississippi ..Hot-water bath canner. 

Favorite Manufacturing 

Company Tampa, Florida Water-seal canner. 

Griftitli & Turner Co. . . Baltimore, Maryland . . . Steam canners. 
205-207 N. Paca St. 

Hamp Williams Hot Springs, Arkansas. .Home canners. 

Home Canner Manufac- 
turing Company Hickory, North Carolina. Hot-water bath canner. 

Henninger & Ayes Manu- 
facturing Company . . . Portland, Oregon Steam canners. 

E. F. Kirwan & Company.Baltimore, Maryland . . . Hot-water bath canner. 

Monarch Manufacturing 

Company Chattanooga, Tennessee . Hot-water bath canner. 

Modern Canner Company. Chattanooga, Tennessee . Hot-water bath canner. 

Northwestern Steel and 

Iron Works Eau Claire, Wisconsin. . Steam canners. 

Phillips & Buttoiff Manu- 
facturing Company . . . Nashville, Tennessee . . . Hot-water bath canner. 

Pressure Cooker Com- 
pany Denver, Colorado Aluminum steam canners 

and cookers. 

Raney Canner Company. Chattanooga, Tennessee .Hot-water bath canner. 

Royal Home Canner Com- 
pany Cliattanooga, Tennessee . Hot-water bath canner. 



APPENDIX 379 

Royal Supply Company .Cincinnati, Uhio Canners. 

Southern Evaporator 

Company Chattanooga, Tennessee . .Hot- water bath canner. 

Sprague Canning Ma- 
chinery Company . . . .Chicago, Illinois Steam canners. 

222 North Wabash Ave. 

Stalil, f. S Qiiincy, Illinois Hot-water bath canner. 

The Dandy Canner Com- 
pany Overton, Texas Hot- water bath canner. 

Utility Company Hickory, North Carolina. Hot-water canner. 

West Manufacturing 

Company Philadelphia, Pa " Carbery Water-seal 

Florida Metal Products 

Company Jacksonville, Florida . . .Canning outfits. 

Thomas Roberts & Co. . .Philadelphia, Pa Canning outfits. 

Atlanta Wooden Ware 

Company Atlanta, Georgia Canning outfits. 

Wilmot Castle & Co Rochester, New York . . .Canning outfits. 

Carolina Metal Products 

Company Wilmington, N. C Canning outfits. 

Wyatt Metal Works .... Dallas, Texas Canning outfits. 

Steetzman Mfg. Co Ligonier, Indiana Canning outfits. 

National Canner Co New Orleans, Louisiana. Canning outfits. 

Willson Canner Company.Louisville, Kentucky . . . Canners. 
Sth and G Sts., N. W. 
Washington, D. C. 

Mechcmical ^^eals and Sealers for Tin and OJass 
American Metal Cap 

Company Brooklyn, New York .... Metal Ixittle caps. 

Summit St. and Com- 
mercial Wharf. 
Bowers Can Seal Com- 
pany Boston, ^lassachusetts . .Automatic can sealers, 

146 Summer St. tin cans. 

Burpee & Letson, Ltd. . . .South Bellingham, Wash.Automatic can sealers, 

tin cans. 
Crown Cork and Seal 

Company Baltimore, Chicago, San 

Francisco, and other 

cities Metal bottle caps and 

sealers. 
Henninger & Ayes ^Manu- 
facturing Company ...Portland, Oregon Automatic can sealers, 

tin cans. 



380 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

New Process Cork Com- 
pany Hoboken, New Jersey . . .Metal bottle caps. 

15th and Garden Sts. 
The Enterprise Manufac- 
turing Co. of Pa Philadelphia, Pa Bottle cappers — from 

three inches to 14 
inclies. 
American Pure Food 

Process Company . . . .Baltimore, Maryland . . .Hand sealing machine for 

glass jars. 
Anchor Cap & Closure 

Corporation Brooklyn, New York . . . Foot machine for sealing 

Pearl and Prospect Sts. glasses. 
Handycap INIanufacturing 

Company Chicago, Illinois Hand sealing machines. 

3011-3025 Loomis Crown caps. 

Place 

Silver & Company Brooklyn, New York . . . Fruit jar lifters. 

304-314 Hewes Sts. 

Steamers 
Wilmot, Castle & Co. . . .Rocliester, New York. . . .Steamers. 

Heating Devices 

Manning, Bowman & Co.Meriden, Connecticut . . . Alcohol ite stoves. 
Globe Gas Light Com- 
pany Boston, Massachusetts . .Kerosene gas stoves. 

W. J. Baker Company. . .Newport, Kentucky . . . .Gates folding camp stove, 

gasoline stove. 

Tin (V/ns, (llass Jars. Earthenware Jars, Bottles, and Rubber Rings 

Acme Glass Company . . .Olean., New York 8- and 10-ounce ketchup 

bottles. 
American Can Company. Baltimore, Maryland . . .Tin cans. 
Philadelphia, Penna. 
New York City. 
Chicago, Illinois 
Atlanta, Georgia. 
Ball Brothers Glass Man- 
ufacturing Company . .^luncie, Indian-: Mason and glass-top jars. 

Boston Woven Hose and 

Rubber Company Boston, ]\Iassachusetts . .Rubl>er rings. 

Chesapeake Glass Com- 
pany Baltimore, Maryland . . . Glass jars. 



APPENDIX 



381 



Continental Can Com- 
pany Chicago, Illinois Tin cans. 

Hazel-Atlas Glass Com- 
pany Wheeling, West Virginia. Fruit jars and tumblers. 

Hemingray Glass Com- 
pany Covington, Kentucky . . . Glass jars. 

Kerr Glass Manufactur- 
ing Company Sand Springs, Oklahoma . Economy jars. 

Marion Flint Glass Com- 
pany Marion, Indiana. 

Revson, Frank Atlanta, Georgia Bottles. 

Robins, A. K., & Co Baltimore, Maryland . . . Tin cans and general 

e<|uipment. 
Savannali Wooden-ware 

Company Savannah, Georgia Glass jars. 

Schloss, Ben San Francisco, Calif. . . .Two-piece top jars. 

Smalley Fruit Jar Com- 
pany Boston, Massachusetts . . Queen glass jars. 

Southern Can Company. .Baltimore, Maryland . . .Tin cans. 
Staunton Jar Corpora- 
tion Buffalo, New York Vacuum seal jars. 

Ellicott Square. 
Tennessee Can Company. Chattanooga, Tennessee. Tin cans. 
Thatcher Manufacturing 

Company Elmira, New York Glass jars. 

Travis Glass Company. .Clarksburg, Virginia ...Glass jars. 
United States Can Com- 
pany Cincinnati, Ohio Tin cans. 

Virginia Can Company. .Buchanan, Virginia . . . .Tin cans. 
Western Stoneware Com- 
pany Monmouth, Illinois .... Earthenware jars. 

White Crown Fruit Jar 

Company Louisville, Kentucky . . . White Crown screw caps 

for Mason jars. 
National Can Company. Baltimore, Maryland ...Tin cans. 

Tyler Can Company. .. .Philadelphia, Pa Tin cans. 

Phillips Can Company. .Cambridge, Maryland ..Tin cans. 

Wheeling Can Co Wheeling, W. Va. 

Colonial Can Company. .Boston, Mass Tin cans. 

120 Milk St. 
Owensboro Canning Co. .Owensboro, Kentucky ..Tin cans. 
Alabama Marketing & 

Canning Co Birmingham, Alabama . .Tin cans. 

2130 Morris Avenue. 



382 SUCCESSFUL CANNING AND PRESERVING 

A. K. llobins & Co iialtiiiiore, Maryland ..Tin cans. 

The Southwestern Bee 

Company San Antonio, Texas .... Tin cans. 

202G S. Elores St. 

Owens Bottle-Machine 

Company Toledo, Ohio Bottles. 

Turner Brothers Com- 
pany Terre Haute, Indiana . .Bottles and preserve jars. 

The Cumberland Glass 

Mfg. Company Bridgeton, New Jersey. . Bottles and preserve jars. 

The Bloom Jar Co Wellsburg, W. Va Glass jars. 

Pennsylvania Glass Co. .Charleston, W. Va Glass jars. 

Boren-Stewart Co Dallas, Texas Rubber rings. 

The VV. H. Schaefer Co. .Toledo, Ohio Rubber rings and 

wrenches. 

Smalley, Kivlan & On- 

thank Co Boston, Mass Rubber rings. 

The Kearns-Gorsuch Bot- 
tle Company Zanesville, Ohio Bottles and jars. 

United States Glass Co. . Pittsburgh, Pa Jars. 

The Mechanical Rubber 

Company Cleveland, Ohio Rul)l)er rings. 

Vegetable and Fruit Drying Equipment for Commercial and Home Use 

Allen Fruit Company ..Salem, Oregon. 

Beck Evaporator Com- 
pany Watsonville, California. 

Boutell Manufacturing 

Company Rochester, New York. 

Blymyer Iron U'orks 

Company Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Caledonia Bean Harvest- 
er Works Caledonia, New York. 

Devine, J. P., Company . . Buffalo, New Y'ork. 

Fahrney, E. B Wayneshoro. Pa. 

Field, J. A., & Co St. Louis, Missouri. 

6th and Howard Sts. 

Gaylord, F. D Sodus Point, New Y'ork . Furnaces. 

General Dehydrator Com- 
pany New Y^ork City, N. Y^. 

114-118 Liberty St. 

Goodrich, A. C, & Co... North Yamhill, Oregon. 

Granger Manufacturing 

Company Philadelphia, Pa. 

Harrison Rich Carrolites, California. 



APPENDIX 383 

Miller, F. H Caledonia, New York ... Furnaces. 

Munsville Plow Company. Munsville, New iork. 

Palmer & Co Noble, Illinois. 

Sebastian Brothers ... .Odin, Illinois. 

Smith's E., Sons Buffalo, New York. 

Seeley, D. W Sodus Point, New York. .Furnaces. 

Shaver, H. W Sodus Point, New Y^ork. .Furnaces. 

Southern Canner and 

Evaporator Company. Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

Sperry, D. R., & Co North Aurora, Illinois. 

Steam Heat Evaporating 

Company Charlotte, Michigan. 

Stutzman Manufacturing 

Company Ligonier, Indiana. 

Trescott, W. A Fairport, New York. 

The Brecht Company . . .St. Louis, Missouri Driers. 

12th and Cass Ave. 
Harry Bentz Engineering 

Company New York City. 

90 West Street. 

Miscellaneous Corrugated Cardboard Containers 

American Paper Products Company . .St. Louis, Missouri, 205 Bremen Ave. 

Andrew Paper Box Company Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

Empire Printing and Box Company. Atlanta, Georgia. 
Hinde & Dauch Paper Comp&,ny .... Sandusky, Ohio. 

LaFore Foster Company Philadelphia, Pa., 1211 Noble St. 

I^wrence Pai>er Manufacturing Com- 
pany Lawrence, Kan-sas. 

Mid-West Box Company Anderson, Indiana. 

Robert Gair Company Brooklyn, New York. 

Sefton Manufacturing Company . . . .Chicago, Illinois, 1301 West S.lth St. 
Thompson & Norris Company Boston, Massachusetts. 

Brooklyn, N. Y''., Prince and Concord 
Sts. ' 

Brookville, Indiana. 

Cardboard Paraffin-coated Containers 

American Can Company New York City, N. Y^, 447 W. 14th St. 

American Mono-Service Company ...Newark, New Jersey. 

Purity Paper Bottle Company Washington, D. C, 1341 S. Capitol St. 

Sanitary Paper Bottle Company .... Sandusky. Ohio. 

Weis Manufacturing Company Monroe, Michigan. 

Wyle, T. Wilson Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 



INDEX 



Accounts for canners, blanks and 

directions, 314, 315 
Accuracy, special equipment for, 

37-39 
Acetic acid formation in vinegar, 
111, 113 
in vinegar, law require- 
ments, 109, 115 
loss in vinegar making, 114 
percentage in 60-grain vin- 
egar, 206 
fermentation of vinegar, 113, 
117 
Acid, addition to sweet juices in 
jelly making, 170, 177 
essential in fruit jelly making, 
175 
Acidity test for pickling brine, 194 
Acids, injurious to bacterial growth, 

29 
Address list, institutions directing 
extension work, 376 
lists, firms having canning out- 
fits, etc., 378-383 
Aerobes, nature and action on food- 
stuffs, 25-27 
Agricultural extension work, insti- 
tutions directing, list, 376-378 
Air, exclusion from pickle brine, 

directions, 194, 195 
Alcohol formation in vinegar, 110, 
111 
test for pectin in fniit juices, 

177 
use in protecting jelly from 
mold, 184 
25 385 



Alcoholic fermentation in vinegar, 

112, 116 
America, canning introduction and 

development, 5, 6 
Anaerobes, nature and action on 

foodstuffs, 25-28 
Antiseptics, objectionable in foods, 

31, 32 
Apollinaris tea, recipe, 121 
Appendix, 376-383 
Appert, Nicholas, studies and experi- 
ments in canning foods, 1, 2 
Apple butter, recipe and directions, 
168 
chutney, recipes and directions, 

207 
cores and skins, drying and use, 

238 
juice testing, 179-181 

use with other flavors and 
colors for jelly, 186, 187 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

157, 158 
sauce canning, 124 
syrup, directions for making, 
104, 105 
Apples, canning, directions, 124 

drying, directions, 230, 237, 238 
sugar content, relation to vin- 
egar making. 111, 112 
Appropriations, state and federal, 

for demonstration work, 283 
Apricots, syrup making, directions, 
108 
drying, directions, 238 
Apron for garden work, 289 

housewife's, significance, 286 



386 



INDEX 



Aprons for canning-club girls, 287, 

288 
Artichoke pickle, recipe, 221 
Artichokes, canning, directions, 133. 

134 
Asparagus canning, directions, 133 
Aspergillus, injurious fungus, 17 
Atlantic Coast, canning industry, 6 

B. S. chutney, recipe and directions, 

206, 207 
Bacon pickle in brine, 264 

sugar-cured, directions, 263, 264 

Bacteria, aerobic and anaerobic, 

classification and action, 25- 

28 

harmful to cucumber pickles, 

194 
in cucumber pickling, 194 
in resting stage, resistance, 21, 

22 
nature, growth, and control, 20- 

23, 25-28 
nonsporulating, destruction, by 

boiling temperature, 21, 27 
relation to canning, importance, 
6, 12 
to vinegar making, 110, 
114 
substances injurious to, 29 
Bacteriology as applied to canning, 

15-35 
Bacillus butyricus, illustration, 24 
Bacillus found on tomatoes, show- 
ing flagellse, illustration, 19 
Bacillus megatherium, illustration, 

26 
Balling hydrometer, description, 131 
Baltimore, canning industry, begin- 
ning, 5 
Banner of Spain chutney, recipe and 

directions, 206, 207 
Banks, earth, for storing root vege- 
tables, 251-252 



Barks, medicinal, selling to drug- 
gists, 250 
Barrels, use in cucumber brining, 

bunging and turning, 195, 196 
Basement storage room for vege- 
tables, 251 
Basket, fruit-press, description, 95 
holding cans or jars for proc- 
essing, 80 
Bay, aweet, leaves, drying, 249 
Beans, canned, grades, 307 

canning, directions, 134, 135 
dried, cooking, 247 
fermenting, directions, 215 
green, string, drying directions, 

243 
heat destruction of vitality for 

seed use, 243 
protein source, 276, 279 
shelled, drying directions, 243 
sterilization, intermittent, for 

control of bacteria, 22, 23 
storage, 254 
Beef casings, 268 

corned, canning directions, 354 

directions, 258, 259 
drying, directions, 259, 260 
preserving, methods, 258-260 
roast, canning directions, 352 
Beets drying, directions, 244 
fermenting, directions, 215 
pickled, recipe, 221 
small, canning directions, 135 
Berries, canned, grading, 307 

canning, directions, 124, 125 
drying, directions, 238, 239 
preserving, general directions, 

154 
washing, directions, 125 
Berry shrub, directions for making, 

119 
Bibliography, 13, 35, 58, 85, 86, 122, 
123, 147, 188, 227, 255, 274, 281, 
344, 345 



INDEX 



387 



Birds, canning directions, 31J5 
Blackberry flummery, recipe, 121 
Blanching, directions, 62, 63 
utensils, 38, 39 
vegetables for drying, 242 
Bloomers for garden work, 288, 280 
Boiling ham, recipe (Virginia and 
Louisiana combination), 273 
temperature, destructive to bac- 
teria in growing state, 21, 27 
Bologna sausage, canning, 360 

directions, 267, 268 
Bones, utilization, 350 
Bottles, sterilizing, 98 
Bottling fruit juices, 99, 100 

grape syrup, 108 
Brains, animals', preparation for 

canning, 350 
Brands for canned goods, import- 
ance, 306 
Breakfast bacon, sugar-cured, direc- 
tions, 263, 264 
Brine, acidity test, 194 

for corned beef, directions, 258, 

259 
for cucumbers, making and test- 
ing, 192 
for curing meats, directions, 

258, 260 
for picking bacon and hams, 

264 
sealing from air, directions, 

194, 195 
use in canning vegetables, 133 
Brines, salt percentage table, 192 
Brining cauliflower, directions, 213, 
214 
onions, directions, 215 
principles and directions, 190, 
191 
Brown, Margaret and Mary Belle, 

success in canning work, 305 
Bulletins for women county agents, 
Oklahoma, 321 



Business side of canning, 300-315 
Butters, fruit, general directions, 
164, 165 

Cabbage drying, directions, 245 

storage methods, 252 
Calcium chloride, addition to water- 
bath to raise temperature, 9 
California, fruit and vegetable can- 
ning, 5 
drying, 241 

open-air drying of foods, 229, 
232 
Candied fruits, directions, 161, 162. 
Cane paddle, use in canning, 38, 71, 

72,74 
Canned goods grading, 307 

selling, work by North 
Carolina canning clubs, 
300-306 
products, consumption and 
value, 1916, 11 
score card, general, 340 
storing, 76 
Canner, commercial, outfits, 77-82 

homemade, 77 
Canneries, early, establishment and 

rapid increase, 5 
Canners, steam, for home use, 87- 

90 
Canning, bacteriology of, 15-35 
beginning in England, 3 
business side of, 300-315 
club exhibit, North Carolina 
State Fair, 1915, 313 
organization, 282-299 
work, North Carolina, sum- 
mary, 1912-1916, 306 
clubs, initial work, 283, 285 
members, 1916, 296 
Oklahoma, outlined pro- 
gram, 320 
output, 1916, 11, 296 



388 



INDEX 



Calming, coiiinu'rcial, iiiliuducLidii 
and devolopnienl in Aiucriea, 
5, 6 
equipment and preparation for, 
36-58 
improvements, 8-11 
importance in supplying varied 

diet, 12 
in glass, 71-76 
in large containers, 48 
in tin, 59-70 

industry, location and develop- 
ment, 6-8 
laws, information, 09i 
meats and sea foods, 348-375 
outfits and supplies, firms, ad- 
dress list, 378-383 
scientific, history, 1-14 
tcacliing, school courses, etc., 

316-345 
time-table, processing by steam, 

91 
time-tables, hot-water process, 
83-85 
Cans, cooling and protecting, 43 
sanitary, description, 49 
sealing, tools, 50, 51 
testing, 68 

tin, manufacturing, early and 
present methods, 3, 4 
Cantaloupe pickles, recipes, 222, 

223 
Canvas for meat, yellow wash, 

recipe, 272, 273 
Capping bottles, directions, 102 

tin cans, 64 
Caps, adjusting on glass jars, 74 
Carbonate of lime, use in making 

fruit syrups 104, 107 
Carrots canning, directions, 135 
drying, directions, 244 
sweet pickled, 221 
Casings, sausage, cleaning and pre- 
paring, 268 



C'aulillower brining, directions, 213, 

214 
Caves for storing vegetables, direc- 
tions for making, 253 
Celery leaves, drying, directions, 
246 
storage, 252, 253 
vinegar, recipe, 220 
Cellar, storage of vegetables, 251 
Cellars, outdoor, for storing vege- 
tables, directions, 253 
Cereals, substitute for bread, 278 

used with meats in canning, 351 
Cbayotes fermenting, directions, 215 
sweet pickled, recipe and di- 
rections, 223, 224 
Cheese, head, directions, 264 
Chemicals added to foods, detri- 
mental to health, 31, 32 
Chemistry Bureau, Agricultural 
Department, experiments in 
drying foods, 230 
of vinegar making, 110, 111 
Cherries canning, directions, 125 
drying, directions, 240 
s])iced, directions, 225 
vinegarette, recipe and direc- 
tions, 160 
Cherry preserves, recipe and direc- 
tions, 155, 160 
Chicago, meat canning, 6 
Chicken, canning recipes, 363-365 
Children's diet, importance of fruits 

and vegetables, 277 
Chile peppers canning, directions, 

140 
Chili sauce, recipe and directions, 

211,212 
Chimney for outdoor canner, 82 
Chow-chow, sweet pepper, recipe 

and directions. 206 
Chowder, clam, canning, 374 
Chutnevs, definition, recipes and di- 
rections, 190, 206, 207 
Cider making, directions, 103, 104 



INDEX 



389 



Cincinnati, canning industry, begin- 
ning, 5 
Cities, gardening and canning, 322 
Clam cliowder canning, 874 
Clarifying fats, 357 

grape juice, 117, 118 
Cleanliness, importance in control 

of bacteria, 6 
Cleveland school gardens, 323, 324 
Clock, necessitj' for accurate work, 

38 
Club members, assistance to one an- 
other, instances, 293, 294 
work, coJiperation of borne and 
school, 292, 293 
Clubs, canning, organization, 282- 
299 
See also Canning clubs. 
Cold storage, use in food preserva- 
tion, 33 
Cold-jjack method, dolinition, SS 
Color, preserving in blanching, 63 
Coloring for jellies, note, 187, 188 
Community activities, benefits of 

club work, 293, 294 
Concentrated cider making, 103 
Concord grape juice, directions, 119 
Conserves, description, 165 

marmalades and jams, 163-173 
Containers, estimating and order- 
ing, suggestions, 45, 50 
for canning meat and fish, 349 
packed, demonstration work, 

number and value, 296 
sterilizing before packing, 63, 

64 
types, description, 44-57 
Conveniences, home, results of dem- 
onstration work, 296, 297 
Cooker, agitating, description, 10 

See also Canner ; Processor 
Cooking dried fruits and vegetables, 
directions, 242, 247 



Cooking jelly, general directions, 
182, 183 
preserves, syrup density, etc., 
148-150 
Cook-stove drier, homemade, direc- 
tions for making, 235, 236 
Cooling cans, directions, 68 

preserves, directions, 150, 151 
Cooperation between home and 
school, 292, 293 
community, increased by club 

work, 293 
in growing herbs, desirability, 

248 
metliod of mininiizing labor, 
39-41 
Copper and steel, cleaning and tin- 
ning, directions, 59, 60 
Corking fruit juices, 100 
Corks, cleaning and sterilizing, 100 
Corn, canned, annual consumption, 
report, 1916, 11 
canning, directions, 137, 138 
earliest record, Portland, 

Maine, 5 
equipment, improvement, 

8, 9 
location of leading supply, 7 
methods, 5 
relish, recipe and directions, 

205 
sterilization, intermittent, for 

control of bacteria, 22, 23 
sweet, drying, directions, 244 
Corned beef, canning directions, 354 
Covers for jelly glasses, 184 
Crab meat, canning directions, 373 
Crabai)plo marmalade, directions, 

166 
Crabapples, spiced, recipe, 222 
Cracklings, utilization, 357 
Crani)erry ketchup, recipe and di- 
rections, 211 



390 



INDEX 



Creole sauce canning, directions, 

145-147 
Crops, i^rofitable to girl canners, 

311, 312 
Crout. See Sauer kraut. 
Crystals, tartaric acid, jirevention 

in jelly, 100 
Cucumber and red pejiper, sweet 
pickles, 199, 200 
slices, pickled, 198 
sweet pickles, 198 
Cucumbers, brining, 191, 192, 195, 
196 
fermenting, 215 
grading for pickles, 192, 193 
pickling, general directions and 
recipes, 191-200 
Curing meats, general directions, 

257, 258 
Currant cherry preserves, direc- 
tions, 155 
Currants, spiced, directions, 224 

Daggett, Ezra, canning industry es- 
tablishment in United States, 5 
Dairy equipment improvement im- 

der demonstration work, 297 
Damson plums, spiced, directions, 

225 
Demonstration work among farm 
women, results, 295-298 
of club girls, 285, 286 
Desserts made with fruit juices, 

119-121 
Dial gauge on steam canner, 89 
Diet, need of fruits and vegetables 
supplied by canning, 12 
use of fruits and vegetables, 

275-281 
varied, importance, 12, 280 
Dill pickles, directions, 190, 213, 214 
Dispatch in preserving when fresli, 
importance, 25, 61, 151 



Dixie relish, recipe and directions, 

204 
Dried fruit, cooking, 242 

sorting and storage, 241 
vegetables cooking, use in soups, 
etc., 247 
reheating, 24G 
storing 246, 247 
Drier, community, directions for 

building and heating, 234-235 
Driers, fruit and vegetable, descrip- 
tion and use, 233-236 
homemade, directions, 233-230 
Drippings, preparation and uses, SoG, 

357 
Dry kiln, homemade, description 

and use, 229 
Drying equipment, firms, address 
list, 382 
food preservation method, prin- 
ciples, 30 
foods, general methods, 228-230 
fruits, vegetables, and herbs, 

228-255 
herbs, directions and time- 
tables, 248, 249 
meats, general principles, 256 
Durrand, Peter, English patent for 
canning in tin, 3 

Egg circles, work and number, 296 
Electric fan, use in drying food, ex- 
periments, 230 
Enamel-lined cans, description and 
advantages, 48 
necessary for certain prod- 
ucts, 124, 126, 128, 138, 
142 
Energy, sources in foods, 275 
England, early history of canning, 3 
English mushroom ketcluip, 210 
Enzymes, nature, and effects on 
food, 24, 25 



INDEX 



391 



Equipment and preparation for can- 
ning, 36-58 
canning, improvements and in- 
ventions, 8-11 
for camiing meat and fish, 349 
for girl's garden work, 289, 290 
for portable outdoor canner, 79 
special, for preserving, Ifl, 152 
Evaporating, method of drying 

foods, 229 
Evaporators, descriptions, citations, 
230 
fruit and vegetable, description 
and use, 233-236 
Exhausting canned meats, 351-352 

tin cans, directions, 64, 65 
Exhibits, prize, illustrations and 

suggestions, 336-339 
Extension of useful information by 
home demonstrators, 298 
work, address list of institu- 
tions directing, 376-378 
Extracting fruit juices for jelly, 
175-178 

Fancy packs of jelly, 186 
Fats, rendering, straining, and clari- 
fying, 356-358 
use in soap making, 358 
utilization, 356-358 
Feet, animal, utilization for gelatin, 

350 
Fell, drying and use, 249 
Fermentation, cause, 15 

destructive in vinegar making, 

cause, 114 
forms and processes, 19, 20 
in pickling brine, necessity and 

result, 194 
in vinegar making, 112, 114, 116 
use in preserving vegetables, 
215-220 



Fig canning, directions, 125, 126 
conserve, recipe and directions, 

170 
jam, directions, 167 
paste, directions, 171 
preserves, recipes and direc- 
tions, 159 
Figs, drying in California, 240 

sweet pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 224 
Filter, fruit-juice, homemade, 98 
Financing demonstration work, 282- 

284 
Fire-box built in, outdoor canners, 

90 
Fireless cookers, installed in farm 

homes, 296 
Fire-pot for heating canning tools, 

48, 82, 83 
Firms furnishing supplies for can- 
ning and preserving, address list, 
378-383 
First-year work for girls' canning 

clubs, 286-290, 318, 319 
Fish cakes and dumplings, canning, 
370 
canning, earliest record in 
America, 5 
directions, 349, 368-373 
forced, cakes, canning, 370 
selection for canning, 349 
spoilage, cause and prevention, 
348-349 
" Flat sours," cause and appear- 
ance, 26-28 
Flavoring sauces from fruit syrups, 

uses, 108 
Flux, making, and use, directions, 

59, 64, 66 
Fly campaigns, demonstration work, 

297 
Fly-trap, homemade, illustrations, 
43,44 



392 



INDEX 



Fly-traps, results of demonstration 
work, 297 
use near canning locality, 40 
Foie gras paste, canning, 361 
Food, drying, protection from rain, 
dust and insects, 233, 240 
laws, knowledge needed in com- 
mercial canning, 69 
partially cooked, good medium 

for germs, 27 
preparation demonstration 

work, results, 296 
preserving methods, old and 

new, 1, 29-33 
spoilage, theories of early can- 
ners, 1, 2, 6 
cause, discovery, 4, 5 
Foods, canned, consumption and 
value, 1916, 11 
increased demand, 11 
classes supplying needs of body, 

275, 276 
drying, general methods, 228- 
236 
Foodstuffs, putrefaction, causes, 4, 

5, 15, 20-28 
Fourth-year canning club course, 

319 
Fowl, roast, canning directions, 362 
Fricasseed cliicken, canning direc- 
tions, 364 
Fried chicken, canning directions, 
363 
fish, canning, 370 
Fruit butters and pastes, general 
directions, 168-169 
cup, directions for making, 119 
driers or evaporators, descrip- 
tion and use, 233-236 
juice, extracting for beverages, 

119 
juices, corking and sealing, 100, 
101 



Fruit juices, extracting for jelly 
making, 176-178 
heating, 99, 100 
homemade filter, descrip- 
tion, 98 
pasteurizing, 100 
preparation, bottling, stor- 
ing, etc., 93-123 
reheating and bottling, 99, 

100 
testing in jelly making, 

178, 179 
uses, recipes, 119-121 
value and use, 93 
medley conserve, recipe and di- 
rections, 169 
nectar, directions, 121 
pastes, general directions, 170- 

171 
press, homemade, construction 
and use, 94-97 
household, 94 
punch, directions for making, 

120 
roil, diiections, 172 
Fruits and vegetables, use in the 
diet, 275-281 
candied, directions, IGl, 162 
canning, directions, 124-132 
time-table, hot-water proc- 
ess, 84, 85 
cooking to extract juice, 175, 

176 
crushing and straining, 95, 96 
dried, storage, 241 
drying, directions, 231, 237-241 
for canning, 124-132 
importance in diet, 12 
liability to molds, 17 
nonpectin, 174, 175, 186 
packing in glass jars, 71 
picking, sorting, and cleaning, 
93,94 



INDEX 



393 



Fniits, preparation for canning, 
scalding, peeling, and blanch- 
ing, U1-U3 
prompt canning important to 

success, 2-4 
properties necessary for jelly 

making, 174, 175 
selection, sorting and grading, 

60,61 
spiced, recipes, 222-226 
underripe, use in jelly making, 

175 
washing, peeling, coring, etc., 
utensils, 36, 37 
Free-run juice, superiority, 96-98, 

106 
French method of drying green 
vegetables, 230, 231 
government, work in discovery 
of canning methods, 1, 2 
Fuel for smokehouse, and directions 

for fire, 271 
Fungi, injurious to fruits and vege- 
tables, 17 

(iame fats, rendering and uses, 358 
Garden kneeling pad and apron, 289, 

290 
Gardening in cities, 322 
Gasoline stove for canning, 82-90 
Gauge, dial, steam cooker, 89, 90 
Gelatin from feet of food animals, 

350 
General Education Hoard, help to 

demonstration work, 282 
Germs causing putrefaction, nature 

and control, 20-28 
Ginger apples, directions, 157 

pears, directions, 157 
Girls' club meetings, program, sug- 
gestions, 290-292 
See also Canning clubs 
Girls, fine marketing records for 

canned ffoods, 305 



Girls, responsibility for their own 

canned products, 30i-303, 310 
(ilass, canning in, 71-76 

containers, shapes, sizes, and 

types, 52-57 
first use in canning, 2, 3 
jars, packing for shipment, 312, 
313 
selection, 52, 53 
sterilizing, 71 
testing the seals, 28, 29 
Glasses, jelly, lilling and covering, 

183, 184 
Golden pumpkin chips, directions, 

158 
Goldtlnvaite, Miss, mention, 188 
Gooseberries canning, directions, 
126 
spiced, recipe and directions, 
224 
(Joulash, Hungarian, recipe, 355 
Green mango pickles, recipe and di- 
rections, 208 
tomato pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 201 
Greens, canning, directions, 143 
Grading canned goods, 307 

cucumbers for pickling, 192, 

193 
fruits and vegetables, 60, 61 
Grape butter, recipe and directions, 
16S 
consei've, recipe, 170 
cup, directions, 1 19 
frappe, directions, 121 
jam, directions, 167 
juice bottling, 117 

clarifying, 117, 118 
heating in syrup making, 

107 
straining methods for bever- 
age or jelly stock, 119 
ketchup, recipe and directions, 
210 



394 



INDEX 



Grape, mince meat, recipe and direc- 
tions, 17;} 
paste or fruit roll, directions, 

172 
syrup, directions, lOG-108 
Grapefruit marmalade, directions, 

166 
Grapes, spiced, directions, 224 
crushing and pressing, lOG 
green, pectin content, 118 
Guava butter, directions, 168 
need of acid in jelly, 175 
Gumbo, chicken, canning, 365 

Ham baking, recipe, 273 

boiling, recipe (Virginia and 

Louisiana combination), 273 

cutting, salting, and smoking, 

261-263 
fat utilization, 358 
roast, canning directions, 353 
Hams, pickling in brine, 264 
Hare, jugged, canning, 368 
Hawaii, pineapple canning, rapid 

development, 7, 8 
Head cheese, canning recipe, 359 

directions, 264 
Heads, animal, canning, preparation, 

350, 356 
Health, importance of vegetable 

food in diet, 277-279 
Heat, use in food preparation, 

methods, 32, 33 
Heating community drier, devices, 
235 
grape juice for syrup, 107 
Herb bouquet or " bouquet garni," 

248 
Herbs, drying, directions, 248-250 
importance in cooking, 248 
use in confectionery and per- 
fumery, 249 
in medicine, possibilities, 
list, 250 



Hermetic seal jar, description and 

use, 55, 56, 74, 76 
History of development of scientific 

canning, 1-14 
Hog casings, 268 

liver paste, recipe, 361 
Home conveniences, installation in 
farm homes, '296, 297 
demonstration agents attending 
national meeting, Wash- 
ington, D. C, 284 
clubs, canning, output, 

1916, 11, 296 
course, Peabody College, ex- 
hibit, 340 
work for women, Oklahoma, 
321 
object, funds, agents, 
etc., 282-299 
economics work, expenditures, 
sources and amounts, 283, 284 
storage of vegetables, 250-254 
vinegar making, 109-117 
Homemade canner, 77 

conveniences, results of demon- 
stration work, 296, 297 
driers, description and direc- 
tions, 233-236 
fly-trap, illustration, 43, 44 
fruit-press, construction and 

use, 94-97 
fruit-juice filter, description, 98 
sealing wax, recipe, 101 
Hominy, lye, preparation and can- 
ning, 138, 139 
Hungarian goulasli, recipe, 355 
Hydraulic pressure, use in drying 
foods, 230 

Iceless refrigerators, demonstration 

work, results, 296 
Ices, fruit, directions for making, 

120 



INDEX 



395 



Illinois, canning industry, 7 
Indoor canning, arrangement of 
equipment, 36, 37 
drying, commercial methods, 230 
Intermittent processing, definition 

and direction, 22, 23, 7(), 83, 88 
Invoice for shipments of canned 

goods, 313 
Iron in vegetable foods, 277 

Jams, general directions, 163, 164 
grading, 307 

marmalades and preserves, 1G3- 
173 
Jar lifters, description and use, 39 
Jars, glass, selection, 52, 53 

stoneware, description, 56 
Jellies, fancy, use of pectin, flavor- 
ing, etc., 186 
storing, 185 
Jellometer, description and use, 180 
Jelly cooking, quantity of juice, 179 
general directions, 181, 182 
crystals, prevention, 100 
making, 175-188 
pouring into glasses and cover- 
ing, 183, 184 
protection from mold, 18, 30, 

184, 185 
qualities essential to good prod- 
uct, 174 
score card, 342 
storing, 185 

testing, directions, 183-184 

" weeping," prevention, 185 

Jobber, selling to, in marketing 

canned goods, 311 
Judging canned products, 341 
Jugged hare, canning, 368 
Juices, fruit, bottling for jelly mak- 
ing, 09, 100 
extraction, metliods, 94-99 * 
See also Fruit juices 



Kansas City, meat canning, 6 
Kerosene stove, gas-flame, use in 

canning, 82-90 
Ketchup, definition, recipes, and di- 
rections, 190, 209-211 
grading, 307 
Kettle, steam-jacketed, description, 

9, 161 
Kid, roast, canning directions, 353 
Kidneys, preparation for canning, 

350. 
Kiln, dry, homemade, description 

and use, 229 
Kitchens, municipal, etc., 324, 345 
Knives, paring, selection, 30 
Kumquat marmalade, directions, 166 
preserves, recipt and. directions, 
156 
Kumquats, whole, preserves, recipe 

and directions, 156 

Lactic acid, use in preservation of 

vegetables, 29, 31 
Labelling fruit juices, 102 
glass jars, directions, 76 
jelly glasses, directions, 184 
tin cans, 68, 69 
Labels, can, importance, and printed 

contents, 308, 309 
Laboratory, small, list of supplies, 

siiggestions, 334-336 
Labor-saving devices for canning, 
8-11 
results of demonstration 
work, 297 
Lamb, roast, canning directions, 353 
Lard, trying out, directions, 265, 266 
Laurus 7ioJ)iIes, the sweet bay, 249 
Lawrence, Major, specifications for 

smokehouse, 269-273 
Laws, canned products, obtaining in- 
formation, 69 
Leaves, herb, drying, 248 



39G 



INDEX 



Leeks, drying, directions, 245 
Legal standard, vinegar, New York, 

109, 115 
Lemon liuttt'r, directions, Kit) 

syrup, directions, 108 
Lightning-seal jar, description, 53, 

54 
Lima beans, canning, directions, 135 

drying, directions, 243 
Lime carbonate, use in making fruit 
syrups, 103, 104, 107' 
water, use in drying figs, 240 
Liquid smoke, formula and use, 257 
Liver pastes, recipes, 361-3C2 

sausage, canning, 3G0 
Livers, preparation for canning, 350, 

3()0, 3(12 
Lumber for constructing smoke- 
house, list and cost, 269, 270 
Lussac, Guy, investigations of can- 
ning, and theory of food spoilage, 2 
Lye hominy, preparation and can- 
ning, 138, 139 
solution for soaking olives, 218 
use in peeling peaches, 126 

Macedoine fruit mixture, directions, 

129 
Machine for sealing cans, 49, 51 
Machines for canning corn, improve- 
ment on old methods, 8, 9 
labor-saving, use in canning, 
8-11 
Maine, canning industry, 7 
Malate of lime, settling in apple 

syrup, 105 
Malic acid, disappearance from vine- 
gar, 114, 115 
removal from apple juice, 
103, 105 
Mango, sweet, recipe and directions, 

209 
Mangoes (pickles), definition, recipes 
and directions, 190 207-209 



Marjoram, drying, directions, 249 
Marketing canned goods, girls' clubs, 
300 
policy for canning clubs, 309, 
310 
Marmalade, general directions, 163 
Marmalades, jams, and conserves, 

163-175 
Maryland, canning industry, 7 
Massachusetts, Franiinghain State 

Normal School students, 186 
Meal, well-balanced, requirements, 

279, 280 
Meat canvas, yellow wash, recipe, 
272, 273 
cooling before cutting up for 

conking, 352 
l(i;if recipe, .354 

piuking in can, sealing, exhaust- 
ing and processing, 351- 
352 
in smokehouse, directions, 
271 
])otted, canning, 363 
|)i('paration for canning, 349- 

350 
selection for canning, 349 
spoilage, cause and prevention, 
348-349 
Meats, canning, equipment and de- 
tails, 348-366 
drying, general principles, 256 
})reservation, 256-274 
shoTild be accompanied by vege- 
table foods, 278 
smoked, keeping, 271, 272 
utilization of all parts of ani- 
mal, preparation, 350 
Medicinal herbs, gathering and dry- 
ing. 249, 250 
Medley fruit conserve, recipe and 

directions, 169 
Mince-meat, green tomato, recipe and 
directions, 172, 173 



INDEX 



397 



Miiice, grajje, recipe, 17:3 

Mineral materials supplied by foods, 

275, 276 
Mint drying, directions, 249 

jelly, directions, 187 
Mississippi normal-school garden 

work, 332 
Mixed pickles, definition, recipes, 

and directions, 190, 200-204 
Mixtures, fruit, canning, directions, 

129 
Mock olives, directions, 220 
Mold prevention in canned foods, 
jellies, etc., 18, 30, 151, 183, 184 
Molds, nature, growth, injury to 

food, and control, 15-19 
Money crops for girls' canning gar- 
dens, 311, 312 
'■ Mother," vinegar, addition in vine- 
gar making, 113 
Muscadine grape syrup, directions 

for making, 106-108 
Mushroom ketchup, English, recipe 

and directions, 210 
Mushrooms, drying directions, 246 

pickled, directions, 220 
Mustard dressing for pickles, direc 
tions, 203 
Durham, first prepared by a 

woman, 248 
pickle, recipe and directions, 
201-204 
Mutton, roast, canning directions, 
353 

Navy beans, harvesting and storing, 
254 

Nebraska, training school for volun- 
tary leaders, 333 

New Jersey, canning industry^ 7 

New York, canning industry begin- 
ning, 5 



New York City, expenditures for 
milk, bread, eggt-; and canned 
foods, 11 
evaporators, drying vegetables 

for French army, 230 
fruit and vegetable canning, 7 
vinegar making and legal stand- 
ard, 109-117 
Wayne county, evaporators, 
number in use, 229 
Normal schools, garden work and 

instruction, 325, 330-333 
North Carolina canning club girls, 
illustrations, 41, 42 
canning clubs, business experi- 
ences, 300-315 
county agents, illustration, 313 
Greensboro State Normal Col- 
lege, coininunity drier, 234- 
235 
Nutrients supplied by foods, 275- 
280 

Oil stove for heating copper and 

steel, 43, 47 
Oklahoma, girls' clubs, program, out- 
line, 320 
women's clubs, program, out- 
line, 321 
Okra canning, directions, 139 

drying, directions, 245 
Olives, brining, directions, 219 
pickling, directions, 217-220 
varieties used for pickling, 217 
washing, directions, 218, 219 
( )ne-peiiod method of processing, 87- 

92 
Onion vinegar recipe, 220 
Onions, brining, directions, 215 
drying, directions, 245 
pickling, 215, 216 
storing, 254 
Open kettle for processing, descrip- 
tion, 74 



398 



INDEX 



Opeu-kcttle method of canning, 87 
Open-air drying adapted to dry cli- 
mates, 229, 232, 237 
Orange ice, recipe, 120 

marmalade, recipe and direc- 
tions, 165 
pectin, preparation, 186, 187 
peel, source of pectin, 175 
sour, preserves and marmalade, 
155, 165, 166 
Orange-lemon-grapefruit marmalade, 

recipe, 166 
Oregon, canning salmon, 6 
Organisms causing fermentation and 

putrefaction, 15-28 
Outdoor canning, arrangement of 
tables and equipment, 40-44 
caves or cellars for storing vege- 
tables, 253 
Oxygen, relation to bacteria, 25-28 
Oysters, canning, 373 

Packing canned goods for shipment, 
312 
containers, directions, 64 
fruit and vegetables in glass 

jars for canning, 71 
preserves, in jars, 150, 151 
Paddles, use in canning, and direc- 
tions for making, 38, 71, 72, 74 
Paddling contents of glass jars to 

exclude air, 71, 72 
Paraffin, use in sealing pickle con- 
tainers, 195 
use on jelly to prevent molds, 
184, 186 
Parasitic organisms, illustrations, 

16 
Parcels post, shipments of canned 

goods, 313 
Parsley leaves, drying, directions, 

246, 249 
Parsnips, drying, directions, 244 



Paste for labels, formula and direc- 
tions for use, 69 
tomato, recipe and directions, 
212 
Pastes, fruit, general directions, 170, 
171 
liver, canning directions, 3(11- 
362 
Pasteur, discoveries in bacteriology, 

importance, 4, 5 
Pasteurization, use in preserving 

food, 32 
Pasteurizer made of wash boiler, 100 
Pasteurizing fruit juices, 100 
Payments for canned goods, man- 
agement, 313 
Peach butter, recipe and directions, 
168 
jam, recipe and directions, 167 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

156, 157 
roll or leather, directions, 172 
Peaches, canned, grading, 307 
canning directions, 126, 127' 
drying, directions, 240, 241 

in California, 241 
peeling, lye method, 126 
sweet pickled, recipes and di- 
rections, 225 
Peanut butter, recipe and directions, 

153, 169 
Pear preserves, recipe and directions, 

157 
Pears, canning, directions, 128 
drying, directions, 241 
spiced, recipe and directions, 
225, 226 
Peas, canned, annual consumption, 
report, 1916, 11 
canning, directions, 139, 140 
dried, storage, 254 
green, drying, directions, 243 
sterilization, intermittent, for 
control of bacteria, 22, 23 



INDEX 



399 



Pectin developed by heat, 175 

essential in jelly making, 1?5 
orange, preparation, 186, 187 
strawberry and orange, 187 
sources, 118, 176 
testing in fruit juice, 178-180 
Peeling fruits and vegetables, 61, 62 
Penicillium, injurious fungus, 17 
Pepper mango, stuffed, directions, 
207, 208 
relish, directions, 205 
sauce, directions, 212 
sweet, chow-chow, 206 
Peppers and cucumbers, sweet pickle, 
199, 200 
canning, directions, 140 
drying, directions, 245-249 
Perennial gardens, for advanced club 

workers, 290 
Picking herbs for drying, 248 
Pickle, preservation by acids in- 
jurious to bacteria, 29, 31 
Pickles, recipes and directions, 196- 

209 
Pickling, directions, 189-227 

meat, formula for small pieces, 
260 
Pigeons, canning recipes, 365 
Pigs' feet, pickled, directions, 265 
Pimiento ketchup, recipe and direc- 
tions, 211 
canning, directions, 140 
Pineapple canning, Hawaii, develop 
ment and improvement, 7, 8 
preserves, recipe and directions, 

160 
syrup, formula, 108 
Pits, outdoor, for keeping root vege- 
tables, 251, 252 
Plum conserve, recipe and directions, 
169, 170 
preserves, directions, 157 



Plums, canning, directions, 128, 129 
drying, directions, 241 
use as mock olives, directions, 
220 
Pork brining, 260, 264 

curing, smoking, and keeping, 

general directions, 261-268 
cutting and trimming, direc- 
tions, 261, 262 
preserving, directions, 261-268 
roast, canning directions, 352 
sausage cakes, canning, 360 
directions, 266, 267 
Portable canner, description, 43, 49 
Portland, Maine, early canning ex- 
periments of Isaac Winslow, 5 
Poster for canning-club products, 302 
Potted meat, canning, 363 
Poultry clubs, Oklahoma, outlined 
program, 320 
demonstration work, results, 

296 
fats, utilization and value, 358 
products, demonstration work, 
value, 296 
Preparation and equipment for can- 
ning. 36-58 
Prescott, S. C, investigations of 

canning technic, 6 
Preservation of foods, methods, 29- 
33 
of meats, 256-274 
Preservatives, harmless, use in foods, 

30 
Preserves, 148-162 

cooling and packing. 150, 151 
grading, 307 
sealing, 151 
score card, 342 
Preserving powders, use, detrimental 
to health, 31 
vegetables by fermentation, 215- 
220 



400 



INDEX 



Press, fruit, homemade, 94-97 

lever, for fruit juice, construc- 
tion and use, 95-97 
Prices of canned products, 19 IG- 

1917', 310, 311 
Prize winners, stories of work and 

use of money, 294 
Prizes for exhibits, 343, 344 
Processing canned meats, 351-353 
directions, C(>, 74, 77-92 
methods, advantages, 9, 10 
olives, directions, 219 
one-period, at higii teniperatiuo, 
87-92 
Processors, descriptions, 9, 10, 39 
Program, girls' club meetings, sug- 
gestions, 290, 291 
Protein, sources in foods, 275, 276 
Publications, United States Govern- 
ment, usefulness, 12 
See also Bibliography 
Pumpkin drying, directions, 245 

preserves, directions, 158 
Pumpkins, canning, directions, 140- 

142 
Punch, fruit, recipes, 120 
Putrefaction, causes, 4, 5, 15, 20- 
28 

Questions for use in teaching, 12, 
13, 33, 34, 57, 70, 76, 83, 92, 121, 
122, 132, 147, 162, 173, 188, 226, 
254, 274, 280. 315., 374 
Quince cheese, directions, 171 

pectin content, and need of acid 
to develop, 175 

Rabbit, canning directions, 366-367 
sausage, canning, 366-367 
stew, canning recipe, 367 
Rahn, Otto, experiments with brine. 

191 
Rapidity in canning, importance, 
61-64 



Raspberry ice and float, recipe, 120 
Raspberries, drying, illustration and 

directions, 232, 238 
Records, canning suggestions, 315 
Reheating fruit juice, 99 
Relishes, definition, recipes and di- 
rections, 190, 204-206 
score card, 343 
Retorts, steam, for processing, types, 

87, 90, 91 
Rhubarb canning, directions, 126, 
142 
conserve, directions, 169 
spioed, recipe, 221 
sj'rup, directions, 108 
Rings, rubber, adjusting and precau- 
tions, 57, 74 
Roast fowl, canning directions, 362 

pigeons, canning, 365 
Roasts, meat, canning and process- 
ing, 352-354 
Roe, fish, canning, 372 
Root artichoke pickle, 221 

vegetables, storage, 251, 252 
Roots, medicinal, 250 
Rubbers, adjusting and precautions, 

57, 74 
Rummage pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 200 
Russell, H. L., application of bac- 
teriology to canning, 5 

Saccharometer, description and use, 

38, 129, 132, 152. 178-181 
Sadding, Mr., introduction of can- 
ning into England, 3 
Safety-valve seal jar, description, 51 
Sage drying, directions, 249 
Sales, demonstrations by canning 
club girls, 303 
direct to institutions, etc., 303 
Salmon canning, location, 6 
Salometer, description and use, 191. 
192 



INDEX 



401 



Salt; addition to water bath to raise 
temperature, 9 
percentage scale use in testing 

brine, 38 
use in preserving food, 30, 31 

Salting hams, sliouldcrs, and bacon, 
262 

Saltpetre, use in smoking meats, dis- 
cussion, 256, 257 

Sanitary cans, description, 49 

Saprophytes, relation to canned 
products, 15 

Sassafras leaves, drying and use as 
herb, 249 

Sauces, definition, recipes and direc- 
tions, 190, 211-213 

Sauer kraut, directions, 214 

preservation by acids injurious 
to bacteria, 29 

Sausage making, directions, 266-208 
mixed, directions, 267 

Sausages, canning, 360; 366 

Savory drying, directions, 249 

Sawmills, as market for canned 
goods, 301 

Scalding, fruits and vegetables, 61, 
02, 63 

Scales, necessity for accurate work, 
38 

Scholarships, won by club girls, 290 

School gardens, 324 

Score cards for judging products, 
use, 339-343 

Scrapple, directions, 264, 265 

Screening houses, results of demon- 
stration work, 297 

Screens, to protect food while dry- 
ing, 233 

Screw-top jars, description, 54 

Scum yeast in brine, prevention, 194 

Scuppernong grape juice, directions 
for making, 118 

Sea foods, canning, 349, 369-374 



Seal, importance in canning, 28 

testing, 28, 29 
Sealing canned meat, 351-352 
fruit juices, 101 
glass jars, directions, 74-76 

various devices, 53-57 
jellies, directions, 185 
preserves, 157 

sanitary cans, machine, 49-51 
wax, homemade recipe, 101 
Seals and sealers, firms, address list, 

379 
Seasoning for canned vegetables, 133 
Second-year canning club course, 319 
work for girls canning clubs, 
290 
Seeds useful in medicine, 250 
Self-fermentation, use as preserva- 
tion method, 31 
Serving, work of club girls, 286-290 
Sheep casings, 268 
Shipping canned products, 313 
Shoulders, cutting, salting, and 

smoking, 201-263 
Shrimps, canning, dry pack and w'et 

pack, 372-373 
Shrub, berry, directions for making, 

119 
Skimming jelly, directions, 182, 183 
Slicing apples for drying, 237 
Smith-Lever Extension Act, 283 
Smoke, control in smokehouse, 271, 
272 
liquid, formula and method, 257 
Smoked meats, keeping, 272, 273 
Smokehouse, description, construc- 
tion, and use, 268-272 
Smoking meats, general directions, 
256, 257 
meats in smokehouse, directions, 

270-272 
pork, 263 



402 



INDEX 



Soap making, directions, 358 
Sodium chloride, use in preserving 

food, 30, 31 
Soup fats, clarifying and use, 358 
fowl, canning directions, 363 
mixture, canned, grading, 307 
canning, directions, 145 
vegetables, drying for use of 
soldiers during war, 230 
Sour orange marmalade, recipe and 
directions, 105, ICG 
preserves, directions, 155 
Southern States, home work of girls 

and women, 335, 336 
Spare ribs, canning recipe, 359 
Spatula use in canning, 38 
Specifications and plans for conveni- 
ences, demonstrations, 207 
for constructing smokehouse, 
209, 270 
Spiced cucumber mango, directions, 
209 
salad recipe and directions, 

199 
pickles, directions, 196 
damson plums and cherries, di- 
rections, 225 
fruits, recipes, 222-226 
green tomatoes, recipe, 221 
pears, formula and directions, 

225, 226 
rhubarb, recipe, 221 
vinegar, recipe, 208 
Spices for canned pumpkin, direc- 
tions, 141 
use in preserving food, 30 
Spinach canning, directions, 142, 143 
Spindle, Brix, use in testing fruit 

juices, directions, 178-180 
Spoilage cucumber pickles caused by 
bacteria, 194 
food, theories of early canners, 
1, 2, 6 
cause, discoveiy, 4, 5 



Spoilage, meat and fish, cause and 

prevention, 348-349 
Spores, mold, growth and spread, 17 
j'east, distribution and control, 
20 
Square tin cans, 48 
Squash canning, directions, 143 

drying, directions, 245 
St. Louis community canning 

kitchen, 324 
Standardizing canned goods, 301 
Standards in canning, 306, 307 
Starter, addition in vinegar mak- 
ing, 113-110 
State agents, home demonstrations, 

work, results, 285, 286 
Steam canners, small, for home use, 
87-90 
gauge on canner regulation, 89, 

90 
retorts, types, description, 87- 
90 
' tramers, companies, address, 380 
Steam-jacketed kettle, description 

and illustration, 161 
Steam-pressure outfit for home can- 
ning, illustration, 89 
Steel and copper cleaning, direc- 
tions, 59, 60 
and tipping copper for sealing 
cans, 50, 51 
Sterilization by heat, use in food 
preservation, 32, 33 
intermittent method, 22, 23 
Sterilizing containers before pack- 
ing, 03, 04, 71, 72 
Storage, cold, use in food preserva- 
tion, 33 
of dried fruit, 241 

vegetable's, 246, 247 
of vegetables, 250-254 



INDEX 



403 



Storing bottled fruit juices, 103 
canned products, 70 
jellies, directions, 185 
Stove for heating tools, 82 
Stoves, kerosene and gasoline, for 

canning, 82-90 
Straining fruit juice for jelly, ITS- 
ITS 
Straughn, Doctor, invention of jell- 

ometer, 180 
Strawberry ice, recipe, 120 

jelly with orange pectin, direc- 
tions, 18T 
preserves, recipe and directions, 
154, 155 
String beans, canning, directions, 

134, 135 
Stuffed pepper mango, directions, 

20T, 208 
Stuffing sausages, directions, 266, 26T 
Substances supplied by diet, 2T5- 

280 
Suet preservation and uses, 35T 
Sugar, addition to fruit juice, de- 
pendent on pectin content, 
IT 8-1 80 
addition to juice in jelly mak- 
ing, 181, 182 
hydrometer. See Saccharom- 

eter 
in apples, relation to vinegar, 

111, 112 
proportions for fruit syrups, 108 

for preserves, 153, 154 
quantity for jelly, table, 1T9 
syrup, table, 132 
use in preserving food, 30 
Sulfur, use in drying fruits, 230, 

231, 237 
Summer short-courses in canning, 

suggestions, 317, 318 
Sun drying of foods, 231, 232, 237 
Sun-cooked preserves, directions, 155 



Supplies for canning and preserv- 
ing, firms, address list, 378- 
383 
for small lalx)ratory, list, 334- 
336 
Sweet bay leaves, drying, 249 
pickles, directions, 222-226 
fruits suitable for, 189 
potatoes, canning, directions, 
143 
storage, 253, 254 
" Swells," cause, 26-65 
Syrup, apple, directions for making, 
104, 105 
density for canning various 
fruits, 124, 125, 126-128, 
129 
for preserves, 148, 150, 154, 
158, 159, 162 
making, directions, 71 
testing, 152 
Syrups, fruit, directions for making, 
103-108 



Table for testing apple juice, etc., 

for pectin, 179 
Tables, arrangement for outdoor 
canning, 40, 43, 45 
time, for processing fruits and 
vegetables, 83, 84, 85, 91 
Tarragon vinegar, recipe, 220 
Tartaric acid crystals in jelly, pre- 
vention, 100 
Teacher, cooperation with home and 

club work, 292 
Teaching canning and related ac- 
tivities, 316-345 
Temperature, raising, various de- 
vices used in open-kettle method, 9 
Testing canned goods by grocery- 
men, 303 
fruit juice, for pectin, 178-180 
jelly, directions, 183 



404 



INDEX 



Testing seal of can, G8 

syrup, 152 
Texas, Denton State Industrial Col- 
lege, garden work, 333 
Thermometer, use in drying food, 
242 
use in preserving and jelly mak- 
ing, 38, 100, 152, 164, 182, 183 
Third-year canning club courses, 319 
Thyme drying, directions, 249 
Time-table for processing by steam, 

91 
Time-tables, hot-water process, 83- 

85 
Tin, canning in, 59-70 

cans, early types and develop- 
ment of manufacture, 3, 4 
manufacturing, changes in 

apparatus, 3 
shapes, sizes, and styles, 44, 

51 
testing the seals, 28, 29 
container for preserving foods, 

development, 3, 4 
utensils, objections, 38, 130 
Tins, lacquered, use in canning 

meats and fish, 349 
Tipping cans, directions, 65, 66 

copper and steel, description 
and cleaning, 50, 51, 59, 60 
Toilet soap, recipe, 359 
Tomato canning, location of industry 
and supply, 7 
green, mince-meat, recipe and 
directions, 172, 173 
pickle, recipe and direc- 
tions, 201 
ketchup, recipe and directions, 

209, 210 
paste, recipe and directions, 212 
Tomato puree canning, directions, 
145 
relish, uncooked, recipe and di- 
rections, 205 



Tomatoes, canned, annual consump- 
tion, report, 1916, 11 
grading, 307 
canning, directions, 143-145 
green, spiced, recipe, 221 
liability to molds, 17, 18 
yellow, preserves, recipe and di- 
rections, 159 
Tongue, cured, recipe and directions, 

260 
Tools for sealing cans, 50, 52, 59, 60 

heating, suggestions, 82, 85 
Trays for community drier, descrip- 
tions, 235 
Turnips, canning, directions, 145 
Tyndall discoveries in bacteriology, 
importance, 4, 5 

Underwood, W. L., investigations of 
canning technic, 6 

Underwood, William, early work in 
commercial canning, 5 

Uniformity in size and quality of 
products desirable, 61 

Uniforms, canning-club girls', de- 
scription, 286-288 

Utah, municipal kitchens, 345 

Utensils for preparing and canning 
fruits and vegetables, 36-38 
for pickle making, 189 

Vacant lot gardening, 322 
Vacuum driers, use in drying foods, 

230 
Van Tapscott, Bettie, canning work, 

304 
Veal liver paste, recipe, 361 

roast, canning directions, 353 
Vegetable driers or evaporators, de- 
scription and use, 233-238 
soup mixtures, drying, direc- 
tions, 245 
Vegetables and fruits, use in the 
diet, 275-281 



INDEX 



405 



Vogetables, canneries, location, G, 7 
canning, directions, 133-147 
time-table, hot-water proc- 
ess, 83, 85 
processing by steam, 91 
dried, preparation for the table, 
247 
sweating, reheating and 
storing, 246, 247 
drying, directions, 242-247 

in evaporators for use of 
soldiers, 230 
for canning, 133-147 
green, drying by pressure, 

French method, 230 
home storage, 250-254 
importance in diet, 12 
packing in glass jars for can- 
ning, 71 
preparation for canning, 61-63 

for drying, 242 
preserving by fermentation, 

215-220 
processing bj' steam, time-tabk\ 

91 
prompt canning, importance to 

success, 25, 61, 151 
selection, sorting, and grading, 

GO, 61 
washing, peeling, etc., utensils, 
36, 37 
Ventilators, smokehouse, descrip- 
tion and need, 270, 271 
Vinegar, good, requirements, 115- 
117 
law requirements, 109, 115 
making, chemistry of, 110, 111 

directions, 108-11? 
poor, causes, 115 
sixty-grain, equivalent in acetic 

acid, 206 
spiced, recipes, 208, 217 
use in preserving food, 30 



Vinegars, flavored, recipes, 220 
Virginia, normal-school garden 
work, 330, 331 
outdoor canning, demonstra- 
tions, 40, 47 
Vitamins supplied by fruits and 
vegetables, 279 

Washington, salmon canning, 6 
Water-bath, original canning 

methods, 1, 2, 9 
W^atermelon rind, gingered, recipe 
and directions, 158, 159 
pickles, directions, 222 
preserves, recipe and direc- 
tions, 158 
Watts family, fine record in canning 

work, 305 
Wax, sealing, homemade recipe, 101 
Willard School Farm, gardens and 

canning work, 324-326, 328 
Winslow, Isaac, work in canning, 5 
Winter garden demonstrations, 296 
Wire basket with steam canner, de- 
scription and use, 9 
baskets for blanching fruits, 9, 
38 
Women county agents and funds 
available, 1914-1917, 284 
farm, extension work, 282, 295, 
298 
Women's clubs, organization, 296 

Yeast germs, action in fermentation, 
112 
nature, growth, and reproduc- 
tion, 19, 20, 21 
scum, prevention in pickling 
brine, 194 
Yellow wash for meat canvas, recipe, 
273 

Zinc tops for jars, objections, 54 



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